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B1 verb #2,500 le plus courant 5 min de lecture

향상시키다

hyangsangsikida
Entraîne-toi Exemples Notes et astuces 향상시키다 en 30 secondes
Explication 향상시키다 in your Level:
At the A1 level, '향상시키다' might be a bit difficult because it is a long word. However, you can think of it as 'making something better.' In simple Korean, we often say '좋게 만들어요' (make it good). '향상시키다' is the more 'grown-up' way to say that. You use it when you talk about your Korean skills. For example, 'I want to improve my Korean' is '한국어 실력을 향상시키고 싶어요.' Even at A1, learning this word helps you sound more serious about your studies. Just remember: [Thing] + 을/를 + 향상시켜요. It is used for things you can practice, like sports, music, or language. It is a very positive word that shows you are working hard to be better than before. Don't worry about the long spelling; just focus on the '향상' (improvement) part!
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At the A2 level, you are starting to use more specific verbs. '향상시키다' is a great verb to add to your vocabulary for talking about goals. While you might know '공부하다' (to study), '향상시키다' describes the *result* you want from studying. You can use it to talk about your hobbies or your job. For example, 'I am practicing to improve my soccer skills' (축구 실력을 향상시키기 위해 연습해요). It is important to notice that this verb is transitive, meaning it always needs an object. You are 'improving [something].' This is different from '좋아지다,' which just means something 'gets better' on its own. At A2, try to use '향상시키다' in your writing tasks when you describe your future plans or your reasons for learning Korean. It will make your sentences look much more professional and clear.
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As a B1 learner, '향상시키다' should become a core part of your vocabulary, especially for the TOPIK exam or professional interactions. This word is classified as B1 because it bridges the gap between everyday conversation and formal discourse. It is the standard word for 'to improve' in contexts like 'improving productivity,' 'enhancing quality,' or 'bettering living standards.' You should be able to distinguish it from '개선하다' (to reform/improve a bad situation) and '발전시키다' (to develop). '향상시키다' specifically targets the *level* or *degree* of a skill or quality. For instance, in an essay about technology, you might write about how smartphones have '향상시켰다' (improved) our communication speed. You should also be comfortable using it in various grammatical forms, such as '향상시키기 위해' (in order to improve) or '향상시키는 것이 중요하다' (improving is important).
At the B2 level, you are expected to use '향상시키다' with a wide range of abstract nouns. You should move beyond just '실력' (skill) and '능력' (ability) to objects like '경쟁력' (competitiveness), '효율성' (efficiency), '부가가치' (added value), and '인지도' (brand awareness/recognition). At this level, you should also be very careful with the distinction between '향상시키다' (active) and '향상되다' (passive). In B2 writing, using the causative '-시키다' correctly shows a high command of Korean syntax. You might encounter this word in news articles about economic growth or social issues. For example, 'The government implemented a new policy to improve (향상시키기 위해) the birth rate' or 'The company is seeking ways to improve (향상시킬) customer satisfaction.' It is a key word for expressing agency and strategic goals in formal Korean.
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For C1 learners, '향상시키다' is a foundational word that allows for nuanced discussion of complex topics. At this level, you should be able to use it in highly formal registers, such as academic papers, official reports, or debates. You should also understand its relationship with even more specialized synonyms like '증진시키다' (to promote/enhance health or welfare), '제고하다' (to boost/enhance awareness or status), and '고양시키다' (to uplift morale). A C1 learner knows that '향상시키다' is often the best choice when discussing the qualitative advancement of a system or a human attribute. You might use it in a sentence like, 'The integration of AI into the manufacturing process has significantly improved (비약적으로 향상시켰다) the precision of the output.' The use of adverbs like '비약적으로' (leaping/drastically) or '점진적으로' (gradually) with '향상시키다' is a hallmark of C1 proficiency.
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At the C2 level, '향상시키다' is used with absolute precision within complex sentence structures. You understand the subtle rhetorical weight it carries compared to its synonyms. In a C2 context, you might discuss the philosophical or socio-economic implications of '향상시키다'—for instance, the ethics of 'human enhancement' (인간 능력 향상). You are capable of using it in the passive causative form or within intricate nested clauses. For example: '국가 경쟁력을 근본적으로 향상시키기 위해서는 교육 시스템의 전면적인 개편이 선행되어야 한다는 목소리가 높다' (There are many voices claiming that a total reorganization of the education system must come first in order to fundamentally improve national competitiveness). At this level, '향상시키다' is not just a vocabulary word; it is a tool for constructing sophisticated arguments about progress, evolution, and strategic development in any professional or academic field.
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Entraîne-toi Exemples Notes et astuces

향상시키다 en 30 secondes

  • 향상시키다 means 'to improve' or 'to enhance' something actively, focusing on raising its level or quality significantly through deliberate effort and practice.
  • It is a formal, transitive verb that requires an object (using 을/를) and is commonly used in professional, academic, and self-development contexts.
  • Commonly paired with nouns like 실력 (skill), 능력 (ability), 품질 (quality), and 효율성 (efficiency) to describe positive growth and advancement.
  • It differs from '향상되다' (to be improved) by emphasizing the agent's role in making the improvement happen, rather than the state changing naturally.

The Korean verb 향상시키다 (hyangsang-sikida) is a powerful, formal, and highly versatile term that translates to 'to improve,' 'to enhance,' or 'to upgrade.' It is a causative verb formed by combining the noun 향상 (improvement/advancement) with the suffix -시키다 (to make/cause). Unlike the more general '좋아지다' (to get better), 향상시키다 implies a deliberate, active effort to raise the quality, level, or standard of something specific, such as a skill, a technology, or a living condition.

Core Nuance
It suggests a vertical movement—moving from a lower state to a higher, more sophisticated state. It is the 'level up' verb of the Korean language.
Active Agency
Because it ends in -시키다, it emphasizes that an agent (a person, a company, a program) is actively causing the improvement to happen.

"꾸준한 연습은 당신의 실력을 향상시킵니다."

— Constant practice improves your skills.

In academic and professional settings, this word is indispensable. If you are writing a resume, a business proposal, or an IELTS essay in Korean, you will use 향상시키다 to describe how you increased efficiency, bettered your language proficiency, or enhanced the quality of a product. It carries a sense of progress and positive development that is more formal than '고치다' (to fix) or '바꾸다' (to change).

"정부는 국민의 삶의 질을 향상시키기 위해 노력하고 있습니다."

— The government is working to improve the quality of life for its citizens.
Semantic Range
It covers everything from abstract concepts like 'competitiveness' (경쟁력) to concrete metrics like 'productivity' (생산성).

Understanding the difference between 향상시키다 and 향상되다 is crucial. While 향상되다 means 'to be improved' (passive/intransitive), 향상시키다 requires an object—the thing that you are making better. This distinction is vital for correct sentence structure in Korean.

Using 향상시키다 correctly requires understanding its grammatical requirements and the typical objects it pairs with. As a transitive verb, it always needs an object marked with the particles -을 or -를. The structure is usually: [Subject] + [Object]을/를 + 향상시키다.

Grammar Pattern
능력을 향상시키다 (To improve ability), 기술을 향상시키다 (To improve technology).

"새로운 소프트웨어는 작업 효율성을 향상시켰습니다."

— The new software improved work efficiency.

When conjugating, it follows the standard rules for -하다 verbs because -시키다 behaves similarly. In polite spoken Korean, it becomes 향상시켜요. In formal written or spoken Korean, it becomes 향상시킵니다. In the past tense, it is 향상시켰어요 or 향상시켰습니다.

Common contexts include education (improving grades), sports (improving performance), and business (improving sales or quality). It is rarely used for physical objects that are simply 'fixed' (like a broken chair); instead, it's used for the *performance* or *quality* of that object.

"독서는 사고력을 향상시키는 데 도움이 됩니다."

— Reading helps in improving thinking skills.
Common Objects
실력 (skill), 능력 (ability), 성적 (grades), 품질 (quality), 기능 (function), 효율성 (efficiency).

You will encounter 향상시키다 in a variety of high-level environments. It is a staple of Korean news broadcasts, corporate boardrooms, and educational lectures. If you watch a documentary about South Korea's economic development, you will hear it repeatedly in the context of improving national infrastructure and technology.

"이번 분기에는 서비스 품질을 향상시키는 데 집중하겠습니다."

— This quarter, we will focus on improving service quality.

In the workplace, managers use it to set goals for their teams. In schools, teachers use it to encourage students to better their academic performance. It is also very common in advertisements for self-improvement apps, language schools, and fitness centers.

News/Media
Used when discussing government policies aimed at improving public welfare or economic indicators.
Education
Used in textbooks and lectures to describe the development of cognitive or physical skills.

"신기술은 에너지 효율을 30% 이상 향상시켰습니다."

— The new technology improved energy efficiency by more than 30%.

One of the most frequent errors learners make is confusing 향상시키다 (to improve something) with 향상되다 (to be improved). Remember: -시키다 is active and needs an object, while -되다 is passive/intransitive and usually takes a subject with -이/가.

Incorrect
실력이 향상시켰어요. (The skill improved [someone] - makes no sense).
Correct
실력을 향상시켰어요. (I improved my skill) OR 실력이 향상되었어요 (My skill improved).

"성적을 향상시키기 위해 학원에 다녀요."

— I go to an academy to improve my grades. (Correct active use)

Another mistake is using 향상시키다 for physical repairs. You don't '향상시키다' a broken car; you '수리하다' (repair) or '고치다' (fix) it. You only '향상시키다' the car's *performance* or *fuel efficiency*.

Collocation Error
Avoid using it with '기분' (mood). To improve a mood, use '기분을 좋게 만들다' or '기분 전환을 하다'.

To truly master Korean, you need to know the synonyms and related terms that share the semantic space with 향상시키다. Each has a slightly different flavor.

개선하다 (Gaeseon-hada)
Focuses on 'reforming' or 'correcting' something that is currently bad or inefficient. Often used for systems, habits, or environments.
증진시키다 (Jeungjin-sikida)
Specifically used for 'promoting' or 'enhancing' things like health, welfare, or national interests. It implies a steady increase.
발전시키다 (Baljeon-sikida)
To 'develop' something. This is broader and can include expanding the scale of something, not just its quality.

"우리는 기술을 발전시키고 품질을 향상시켜야 합니다."

— We must develop technology and improve quality.

There is also 강화하다 (to strengthen), which is used when you want to make a policy, a security system, or a muscle stronger. While 향상시키다 is about 'betterment,' 강화하다 is about 'reinforcement.'

고양시키다 (Goyang-sikida)
A very formal word meaning to 'uplift' or 'heighten,' usually used for morale (사기) or spirit (정신).

How Formal Is It?

Niveau de difficulté

Grammaire à connaître

-시키다 (Causative suffix)

-기 위해 (In order to)

-는 데 (In the act/process of)

-을 수 있다 (Ability/Possibility)

-어 주다 (Doing something for someone)

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Exemples par niveau

1

한국어 실력을 향상시키고 싶어요.

I want to improve my Korean skills.

-고 싶어요 (want to)

2

매일 연습해서 실력을 향상시켜요.

I practice every day to improve my skills.

-해서 (reason/sequence)

3

선생님이 제 발음을 향상시켜 주셨어요.

The teacher improved my pronunciation for me.

-어 주다 (do for someone)

4

게임을 하면 집중력을 향상시킬 수 있어요?

Can I improve my concentration if I play games?

-을 수 있다 (can)

5

더 좋은 성적을 향상시키고 싶습니다.

I want to improve to better grades.

Formal -습니다

6

노래 실력을 향상시키는 것은 재미있어요.

Improving singing skills is fun.

-는 것 (gerund)

7

우리는 실력을 향상시키기 위해 노력해요.

We try hard to improve our skills.

-기 위해 (in order to)

8

이 책은 읽기 능력을 향상시켜요.

This book improves reading ability.

Present tense

1

컴퓨터 기술을 향상시키기 위해 학원에 다녀요.

I go to an academy to improve my computer skills.

Purpose structure

2

운동은 건강을 향상시키는 데 아주 좋아요.

Exercise is very good for improving health.

-는 데 (in doing something)

3

외국어 능력을 향상시키는 것은 취업에 도움이 돼요.

Improving foreign language ability helps in getting a job.

Subject nominalization

4

새로운 방법으로 업무 효율을 향상시켰습니다.

I improved work efficiency with a new method.

Past tense formal

5

그는 요리 실력을 향상시키려고 매일 요리해요.

He cooks every day to improve his cooking skills.

-으려고 (intention)

6

이 앱은 기억력을 향상시켜 주는 프로그램이에요.

This app is a program that improves memory.

Noun modifying clause

7

우리는 서비스 품질을 향상시키기로 결정했어요.

We decided to improve the service quality.

-기로 하다 (decide to)

8

어떻게 하면 자신감을 향상시킬 수 있을까요?

How can I improve my self-confidence?

Interrogative -을까요

1

정부는 교육의 질을 향상시키기 위해 예산을 늘렸습니다.

The government increased the budget to improve the quality of education.

Formal context

2

독서는 비판적 사고력을 향상시키는 데 필수적입니다.

Reading is essential for improving critical thinking skills.

Adjective '필수적'

3

신제품은 기존 제품보다 성능을 크게 향상시켰습니다.

The new product has greatly improved performance compared to the existing one.

Comparison -보다

4

직원들의 복지를 향상시키는 것이 회사의 목표입니다.

Improving the welfare of employees is the company's goal.

Possessive -들의

5

꾸준한 피드백은 업무 능력을 향상시키는 지름길입니다.

Consistent feedback is a shortcut to improving work ability.

Metaphor '지름길'

6

다양한 경험은 창의성을 향상시키는 밑거름이 됩니다.

Diverse experiences become the foundation for improving creativity.

Metaphor '밑거름'

7

환경을 보호하면서도 삶의 질을 향상시킬 수 있습니다.

We can improve the quality of life while protecting the environment.

-면서도 (while also)

8

전문가들은 이 기술이 생산성을 향상시킬 것이라고 전망합니다.

Experts predict that this technology will improve productivity.

Quoted speech -라고 전망하다

1

기업들은 글로벌 경쟁력을 향상시키기 위해 혁신을 거듭하고 있다.

Companies are repeatedly innovating to improve their global competitiveness.

-고 있다 (progressive)

2

도시 재생 사업은 거주 환경을 향상시키는 데 목적이 있다.

The urban renewal project aims to improve the living environment.

Noun '재생 사업'

3

인공지능 기술의 도입은 의료 서비스의 정확도를 향상시켰다.

The introduction of AI technology improved the accuracy of medical services.

Causative logic

4

적절한 휴식은 오히려 작업 능률을 향상시키는 효과가 있다.

Proper rest actually has the effect of improving work efficiency.

Adverb '오히려'

5

언어 학습은 뇌의 인지 기능을 향상시키는 데 도움을 준다.

Language learning helps improve the cognitive functions of the brain.

Scientific context

6

브랜드 인지도를 향상시키기 위한 마케팅 전략을 세워야 한다.

We must establish a marketing strategy to improve brand awareness.

-기 위한 (intended for)

7

이 정책은 저소득층의 소득 수준을 향상시키는 것을 목표로 한다.

This policy aims to improve the income level of low-income groups.

Social policy context

8

지속 가능한 개발은 미래 세대의 삶을 향상시킬 것이다.

Sustainable development will improve the lives of future generations.

Future tense -을 것이다

1

반도체 공정의 미세화는 데이터 처리 속도를 비약적으로 향상시켰다.

The miniaturization of semiconductor processes has drastically improved data processing speeds.

Technical terminology

2

문화적 다양성을 존중하는 태도는 사회적 응집력을 향상시킨다.

An attitude of respecting cultural diversity improves social cohesion.

Sociological context

3

기업의 투명성을 향상시키는 것은 투자자들의 신뢰를 얻는 핵심이다.

Improving corporate transparency is key to gaining investors' trust.

Business ethics

4

교육 격차를 해소함으로써 국가 전체의 인적 자원 수준을 향상시켜야 한다.

We must improve the level of the nation's human resources by bridging the educational gap.

-함으로써 (by doing)

5

새로운 에너지원은 국가의 에너지 안보를 향상시키는 데 기여할 것이다.

New energy sources will contribute to improving the nation's energy security.

-에 기여하다 (contribute to)

6

민주주의의 성숙은 시민들의 정치 참여 의식을 향상시키는 것에서 시작된다.

The maturation of democracy begins with improving citizens' awareness of political participation.

Political science context

7

연구 개발에 대한 과감한 투자가 기술 경쟁력을 향상시키는 원동력이 되었다.

Bold investment in R&D became the driving force behind improving technological competitiveness.

Noun '원동력'

8

데이터 분석 역량을 향상시키는 것은 현대 비즈니스에서 필수적인 과제이다.

Improving data analysis capabilities is an essential task in modern business.

Professional context

1

거시경제적 불안정성을 해소하고 국가 신용등급을 향상시키기 위한 다각적인 노력이 경주되고 있다.

Multifaceted efforts are being exerted to resolve macroeconomic instability and improve the national credit rating.

High-level formal '경주되다'

2

인간의 인지적 한계를 극복하고 지적 능력을 향상시키려는 트랜스휴머니즘 논의가 활발하다.

Discussions on transhumanism, which seeks to overcome human cognitive limits and improve intellectual abilities, are active.

Philosophical context

3

공급망의 유연성을 향상시키는 것은 글로벌 불확실성 시대에 생존을 위한 필수 전략이다.

Improving supply chain flexibility is an essential strategy for survival in an era of global uncertainty.

Strategic management

4

사법 제도의 공정성을 향상시킴으로써 법치주의의 근간을 바로 세워야 한다.

The foundation of the rule of law must be established by improving the fairness of the judicial system.

Legal/Political philosophy

5

기술적 특이점 이후의 인류는 자신의 생물학적 기능을 인위적으로 향상시킬 가능성이 크다.

Post-singularity humanity is highly likely to artificially improve its biological functions.

Speculative science

6

조직 내의 심리적 안전감을 향상시키는 것이 구성원들의 창의적 발상을 이끌어내는 관건이다.

Improving psychological safety within an organization is the key to drawing out members' creative ideas.

Organizational psychology

7

국제 협력을 통해 기후 변화 대응 능력을 향상시키는 것은 인류 공동의 과업이다.

Improving the ability to respond to climate change through international cooperation is a common task for humanity.

Global affairs

8

언어적 정교함을 향상시키는 과정은 사고의 지평을 넓히는 과정과 궤를 같이한다.

The process of improving linguistic sophistication goes hand in hand with the process of broadening the horizons of thought.

Idiomatic '궤를 같이하다'

Collocations courantes

실력을 향상시키다 (improve skills)
능력을 향상시키다 (improve ability)
품질을 향상시키다 (improve quality)
효율을 향상시키다 (improve efficiency)
생산성을 향상시키다 (improve productivity)
성적을 향상시키다 (improve grades)
경쟁력을 향상시키다 (improve competitiveness)
기능을 향상시키다 (improve function)
수준을 향상시키다 (improve level)
이미지를 향상시키다 (improve image)

Phrases Courantes

삶의 질을 향상시키다 (improve quality of life)
업무 능력을 향상시키다 (improve work capability)
외국어 실력을 향상시키다 (improve foreign language skills)
집중력을 향상시키다 (improve concentration)
체력을 향상시키다 (improve physical strength)
기술을 향상시키다 (improve technology)
인지도를 향상시키다 (improve recognition/awareness)
만족도를 향상시키다 (improve satisfaction level)
정확도를 향상시키다 (improve accuracy)
보안을 향상시키다 (improve security)

Souvent confondu avec

향상시키다 vs 향상되다 (to be improved - passive)

향상시키다 vs 개선하다 (to improve/reform a negative situation)

향상시키다 vs 수리하다 (to repair a physical object)

Expressions idiomatiques

"일취월장하다 (to make rapid progress - related concept)"
"괄목상대하다 (to see someone in a new light due to their improvement)"
"박차를 가하다 (to spur on/accelerate improvement)"
"심혈을 기울이다 (to devote one's heart and soul to improving something)"
"뼈를 깎는 노력 (bone-cutting effort to improve)"
"환골탈태하다 (to undergo a complete transformation/improvement)"
"금상첨화 (adding flowers to silk - making something good even better)"
"천양지차 (a world of difference - often after improvement)"
"상전벽해 (great changes/improvements over time)"
"청출어람 (the student surpasses the teacher through improvement)"

Facile à confondre

향상시키다 vs

향상시키다 vs

향상시키다 vs

향상시키다 vs

향상시키다 vs

Structures de phrases

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Comment l'utiliser

formality

It is higher in register than '나아지게 하다' or '좋게 하다'.

limitation

Avoid using it for fixing broken physical items (use 수리하다/고치다 instead).

transitivity

It is a transitive verb. It cannot stand alone without an object or an implied object.

Erreurs courantes
  • Using -이/가 instead of -을/를 (e.g., 실력이 향상시켰다 X)
  • Using it for fixing broken objects (e.g., 의자를 향상시키다 X)
  • Confusing it with '개선하다' when talking about fixing problems.
  • Spelling it as '항상시키다' (항상 means 'always').
  • Using it for mood or feelings (e.g., 기분을 향상시키다 X).

Astuces

Object Focus

Always check for the -을/를 particle. If you see -이/가, you probably need '향상되다' instead.

Pair with '실력'

The most common pairing is '실력을 향상시키다'. Memorize this as a single block.

TOPIK Tip

Use this verb in the writing section (Question 53 or 54) to describe positive trends or goals.

Professionalism

Use this word during job interviews to describe how you will contribute to the company's growth.

Causative Logic

Remember that -시키다 means 'to make'. You are 'making' (시키다) an 'improvement' (향상).

Context Clues

If you see words like '교육' (education) or '기술' (tech), expect '향상시키다' to appear nearby.

Adverb Match

Use '꾸준히' (consistently) with this verb to show a strong work ethic.

Hanja Power

Knowing '상' means 'up' helps you remember many related words like '상승' (rise) and '상급' (advanced).

News Watch

Listen to economic news; they often talk about '경쟁력 향상' (improving competitiveness).

Level Up

Think of the 'Ding!' sound when you level up in a video game. That is '향상시키다'.

Mémorise-le

Origine du mot

Derived from Sino-Korean roots meaning 'moving toward the top' or 'upward progress.'

Contexte culturel

Korean companies often use '품질 향상' (quality improvement) as a core management philosophy, similar to the Japanese 'Kaizen'.

The term is central to the 'Hagwon' (academy) culture where the primary goal is '성적 향상' (grade improvement).

Books on '자기계발' (self-development) almost always use this verb to describe the process of bettering one's life.

Pratique dans la vie réelle

Contextes réels

Amorces de conversation

"어떻게 하면 한국어 실력을 향상시킬 수 있을까요? (How can I improve my Korean skills?)"

"요즘 실력을 향상시키기 위해 노력하는 것이 있나요? (Is there anything you are working to improve lately?)"

"이 앱이 정말 기억력을 향상시켜 줄까요? (Do you think this app really improves memory?)"

"회사의 생산성을 향상시키기 위한 좋은 아이디어가 있나요? (Do you have any good ideas to improve the company's productivity?)"

"자신감을 향상시키는 가장 좋은 방법은 무엇일까요? (What is the best way to improve self-confidence?)"

Sujets d'écriture

오늘 나의 어떤 능력을 향상시켰는지 써 보세요. (Write about which of your abilities you improved today.)

올해 가장 향상시키고 싶은 목표 세 가지를 적어 보세요. (Write down three goals you want to improve most this year.)

기술의 발전이 우리의 삶을 어떻게 향상시켰는지 설명해 보세요. (Explain how the advancement of technology has improved our lives.)

실력을 향상시키기 위해 겪었던 어려움에 대해 써 보세요. (Write about the difficulties you faced while trying to improve your skills.)

더 나은 사회를 만들기 위해 무엇을 향상시켜야 할까요? (What should be improved to make a better society?)

Questions fréquentes

10 questions

No, for mood, it is better to use '기분을 좋게 하다' or '기분 전환을 하다'. '향상시키다' is for skills, quality, or standards.

향상시키다 is about raising the level of something already functioning (like a skill). 개선하다 is about fixing something that is wrong or flawed (like a bad system).

Yes, but it sounds a bit formal. In very casual talk with friends, people might say '실력을 키우다' or '잘하게 되다'.

You should use the passive form: '제 영어 실력이 향상되었어요.' If you say '향상시켰어요,' it means 'I improved [something else]'.

Yes, it is very common to say '기술을 향상시키다' (to improve technology) or '성능을 향상시키다' (to improve performance).

Yes, it is a very frequent word in TOPIK II (Intermediate/Advanced) reading and writing sections.

The object being improved takes -을 or -를. The person doing the improving takes -이 or -가.

It's better to use '관계를 개선하다' or '관계를 회복하다' (restore a relationship).

It doesn't specify speed, but it implies a deliberate and steady process.

Yes, '건강을 향상시키다' is possible, though '건강을 증진시키다' is more common in medical/official contexts.

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