C2 Word Order 16 min read Hard

German Word Order: Dramatic Focus with 'Es' (Stylistic Inversion)

Use es as a stylistic placeholder in Position 1 to focus on actions and indefinite subjects.
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Grammar Rule in 30 Seconds

Use 'Es' to push the real subject to the end of the sentence for dramatic emphasis or suspense.

  • Place 'Es' in the first position (Vorfeld) to hold the space.
  • Keep the verb in the second position immediately after 'Es'.
  • Move the actual subject to the position after the verb to create focus.
Es + Verb + [Adverb/Object] + Subject

Overview

Welcome to one of German's most sophisticated syntactic maneuvers: stylistic inversion with es. At the C2 level, your goal extends beyond mere grammatical correctness; you aim for expressive precision and native-like rhetorical flair. This particular construction allows you to manipulate information flow within a sentence, shifting the thematic emphasis and creating a distinct dramatic or atmospheric effect.

It's not just a grammatical quirk; it’s a powerful tool for narrative suspense, formal communication, and vivid description, enabling you to highlight actions or events rather than the specific actors. Mastering this technique means understanding the why behind the structure, not just the what.

German, fundamentally a V2 language, places the finite verb in the second position of main clauses. This means the element occupying the Vorfeld (the first position before the finite verb) carries significant communicative weight. While typically the subject occupies this position, stylistic es acts as an empty placeholder, a grammatical "stand-in" that satisfies the V2 requirement without contributing semantic meaning.

This strategic deferral of the true, often indefinite, subject to a later position is what generates the unique stylistic impact, allowing the sentence to unfold with a heightened sense of anticipation or an emphasis on the described scenario itself. Think of it as controlling the reader's attention, much like a film director uses a slow zoom before revealing a crucial detail. This makes the rule less about strict grammatical necessity and more about thematic progression and rhetorical force, aspects central to C2 proficiency.

How This Grammar Works

The core principle behind stylistic inversion with es lies in German's rigid V2 word order for main clauses. In a declarative sentence, the finite verb must occupy the second position. When you intend to introduce a new, often indefinite, subject that you wish to deemphasize or postpone for dramatic effect, you cannot simply leave the Vorfeld empty.
This is where es steps in. It's an expletive pronoun—a word that serves a syntactic function (filling a required grammatical slot) without carrying any independent lexical meaning. Unlike the personal pronoun es (meaning 'it'), this stylistic es is purely a grammatical filler (Platzhalter or Lückenfüller) for the Vorfeld.
Consider a standard sentence: Viele der Menschen kamen zur Versammlung. (Many people came to the meeting.) Here, Viele der Menschen is the subject and occupies the Vorfeld. If you want to subtly introduce the presence of these people or emphasize the act of coming itself, you can employ stylistic es: Es kamen viele der Menschen zur Versammlung. Notice how es now occupies the Vorfeld (position 1), and kamen (the finite verb) is in position 2. Crucially, the verb always agrees with the actual subject, viele der Menschen, not with the placeholder es.
This is perhaps the most frequent point of error for learners. The verb kommen remains plural (kamen) because the subject viele der Menschen is plural, even though it appears later in the sentence. The es merely holds the Vorfeld open, enabling the stylistic inversion and postponing the grammatical subject.
This structural choice subtly shifts the focus from "who came" to "what happened" or "what exists," an important distinction for C2 expression. This sophisticated manipulation of focus, placing the action or event as primary and the subject as secondary or newly introduced, is a hallmark of native German communication and demonstrates a deep understanding of grammatical agency.

Word Order Rules

The placement of es in this stylistic inversion is highly precise and governed by German's fundamental word order principles. Understanding these rules is paramount to using the construction correctly and effectively, particularly at an advanced level where grammatical nuances convey specific meanings.
  1. 1Vorfeld Occupancy: The stylistic es always occupies the first position (the Vorfeld) of a declarative main clause. This is its defining characteristic. It acts as a temporary occupant, preventing any other element from taking its place while allowing the true subject to appear later, often for dramatic or informational deferral. Its presence signals an immediate emphasis on the unfolding event rather than its source.
  • Example: Es stand ein alter Baum mitten auf dem(m) Platz. (There stood an old tree in the middle of the square.) Here, es is firmly in position 1, setting the stage for ein alter Baum.
  1. 1Verb-Second Principle: Directly following es in the second position is the finite verb. This adheres to the strict V2 rule of German main clauses. This structural consistency ensures that even with the es placeholder, the fundamental rhythm of German remains intact, making the inversion feel natural despite its stylistic purpose.
  • Example: Es lag Schnee auf den(m) Dächern. (Snow lay on the roofs.) lag is the finite verb in position 2, agreeing with Schnee.
  1. 1Subject Postponement: The grammatical subject of the sentence is typically placed in the third position, immediately after the finite verb. This subject is almost invariably indefinite or refers to an unquantified entity, group, or phenomenon. If the subject were definite or already known to the listener/reader, the stylistic effect would be lost, and the construction would often sound unnatural, as es inherently implies the introduction of something new. This is a crucial semantic constraint.
  • Example: Es kamen zwei Fremde zur die Tür herein. (Two strangers came in through the door.) zwei Fremde is the indefinite subject in position 3, marking them as newly encountered.
  1. 1Disappearance upon Vorfeld Reassignment: Stylistic es is a "fair-weather friend." If any other phrase or word moves into the Vorfeld (position 1) for emphasis, thematic continuity, or simply a different informational structure, the es must disappear. It is purely a placeholder when nothing else fills the first slot. Its function is served only when no other element claims the initial focus.
  • Original: Es schwammen viele der Fische im der Fluss. (Many fish were swimming in the river.) – es holds the Vorfeld.
  • With Vorfeld reassignment: Im der Fluss schwammen viele der Fische. (In the river, many fish were swimming.) — Notice es is gone, as Im der Fluss now occupies the Vorfeld.
  1. 1Absence in Subordinate Clauses: This specific es construction never appears in subordinate clauses (Nebensätze). Subordinate clauses have their own distinct word order, with the finite verb typically at the very end. Since there is no Vorfeld in the same sense to be filled (the conjunction or relative pronoun already fulfills the initial linking role), the placeholder es becomes superfluous and grammatically incorrect.
  • Main clause: Es sprachen viele der Stimmen im der Chor. (Many voices spoke in the choir.)
  • Subordinate clause: Ich hörte, dass viele der Stimmen im der Chor sprachen. (I heard that many voices spoke in the choir.) — No es in the subordinate clause.
Understanding these positional rules ensures that your use of stylistic es remains grammatically sound and achieves its intended expressive purpose. Its transient nature and dependency on the Vorfeld make it a marker of advanced grammatical control, distinguishing it from other es functions.

Formation Pattern

1
Constructing sentences with stylistic es follows a predictable pattern, which, once internalized, allows for fluent manipulation of sentence structure. This pattern ensures the verb-second rule is maintained while strategically postponing the subject, thereby achieving the desired dramatic or atmospheric effect. The key is to remember that es is merely a structural device, not a semantic one.
2
The basic structure for a declarative main clause is as follows:
3
| Position 1 (Vorfeld) | Position 2 (Finite Verb) | Position 3 (Subject / unstressed Pronoun / Reflexive Pronoun) | Middle Field (Objects, Adverbials) | End Field (Non-finite Verb, Predicate) |
4
| :------------------- | :----------------------- | :----------------------------------------------------------- | :-------------------------------------------- | :---------------------------------------------- |
5
| Es | [finite verb] | [indefinite subject] / [unstressed pronoun] | [indirect object] [direct object] [adverbials] | [infinitive / participle] [predicate adjective] |
6
Let’s break down the formation steps with detailed examples:
7
Start with Es in Position 1: Always begin your main clause with Es when using this construction. This es is the placeholder that fills the Vorfeld, allowing for the inverted structure. Its presence is mandatory for this specific stylistic effect.
8
Example: Es... (Beginning of a sentence, awaiting the verb and subject.)
9
Place the Conjugated Verb in Position 2: The finite verb, conjugated to agree with the actual subject (which you haven't placed yet), comes immediately after es. This maintains the V2 rule, which is foundational to German main clauses.
10
Example: Es kamen... (for a plural subject like viele Gäste)
11
Example: Es erklang... (for a singular subject like ein Lied)
12
Example: Es lagen... (for a plural subject like Bücher)
13
Insert the True Subject (typically indefinite) in Position 3: This is the element you are strategically postponing. It's usually an indefinite noun phrase, a numeral, or a pronoun referring to an unknown quantity. A critical nuance for C2 learners is the placement of unstressed pronouns. If there are unstressed pronouns (e.g., sich, mir, ihm, ihn), they often precede the full noun subject, maintaining a natural flow and adhering to typical German pronoun placement rules, where shorter, less emphatic elements appear earlier in the middle field.
14
Example with noun subject: Es kamen viele der Touristen...
15
Example with reflexive pronoun before subject: Es nähert sich ein das Gewitter... (A thunderstorm is approaching.) — Here, the reflexive pronoun sich (unstressed) precedes the subject ein das Gewitter.
16
Example with unstressed dative pronoun before subject: Es fiel mir ein der Stein vom das Herzen. (A stone fell from my heart. / I felt a great relief.) — mir (dative pronoun) precedes ein der Stein (subject).
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Example with an indefinite pronoun as subject: Es gab jemanden, der wartete. (There was someone who was waiting.)
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Add Remaining Sentence Elements: After the subject (and any preceding unstressed pronouns), the rest of the sentence unfolds according to standard German word order rules. This typically involves objects (indirect, then direct), adverbials of time, manner, and place, and finally, any non-finite verb parts (infinitives, participles) or predicate adjectives at the very end of the clause.
19
Complete example: Es kamen viele der Touristen aus aller die Welt gestern am der Flughafen an. (Many tourists from all over the world arrived at the airport yesterday.) — Note an from ankommen goes to the end.
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Complete example: Es sprangen einige die Kinder plötzlich aus dem(m) das Gebüsch hervor. (Several children suddenly jumped out of the bush.) — hervor from hervorspringen goes to the end.
21
This systematic approach ensures that while es acts as a placeholder, the grammatical integrity and communicative intent of your sentence are preserved, allowing for sophisticated stylistic effects. The key is consistent application of the V2 rule combined with correct verb agreement and proper placement of the true, typically indefinite, subject.

When To Use It

The stylistic es is not a mandatory grammatical structure but a potent rhetorical choice, a sophisticated tool for fine-tuning the impact of your communication. Its effective use at a C2 level demonstrates an intrinsic understanding of register, emphasis, and information packaging. You deploy it when the manner of presenting information matters as much as the information itself, creating specific communicative effects that a standard word order might not achieve.
This is about choosing the optimal linguistic vehicle for your message.
  1. 1For Dramatic Effect and Suspense: By delaying the introduction of the subject, you build anticipation, drawing the listener or reader deeper into the unfolding event. This is particularly effective in narrative writing, journalism, or even a compelling anecdote. The focus shifts compellingly to the event or action before its agent is explicitly revealed, thus heightening the narrative tension.
  • Example: Es klopfte plötzlich an die die Tür. (Suddenly, there was a knock at the door.) – The sudden klopfen is emphasized before the unknown jemand (implied, or a later-revealed subject) is identified, creating immediate intrigue.
  • Example: Es saßen lange die Zeit Fremde im der Wartezimmer. (For a long time, strangers sat in the waiting room.) – The Fremde are introduced as a mysterious, unsettling element, their presence more significant than their individual identities initially.
  1. 1Introducing New or Indefinite Information: When the identity or specific quantity of the subject is unknown, unimportant, or being introduced for the first time, es helps to present this new information (rheme) later in the sentence. In German, new information often appears towards the end of a clause for greater prominence, and stylistic es facilitates this information flow.
  • Example: Es lagen überall rote das Blätter auf dem(m) der Gehweg. (Red leaves lay everywhere on the sidewalk.) – The general, collective presence of rote das Blätter is the focus, a newly introduced element in the scene.
  • Example: Es wurde viel diskutiert über die neuen die Vorschläge. (Much was discussed about the new proposals.) – The Diskussion itself, as a new event, is primary, while who specifically discussed it is secondary.
  1. 1Atmospheric Descriptions: In literature, poetry, or vivid personal accounts, stylistic es excels at setting a scene or describing an ambient condition without a strong, active agent. It creates a sense of detachment, emphasizing the environment or the overall impression rather than attributing it to a specific actor, thereby immersing the audience in the scene.
  • Example: Es herrschte eine unheimliche die Stille im der Wald. (An eerie silence reigned in the forest.) – The focus is entirely on the Stille, its existence and quality, not on an active 'silencer'.
  • Example: Es roch nach frischem der Kaffee und alten das Büchern. (It smelled of fresh coffee and old books.) – The sensory experience (roch) is foregrounded, creating an immediate atmosphere.
  1. 1Formal and Journalistic Writing: In news reports, scientific articles, or official announcements, this construction can lend a tone of objectivity and impartiality. It can subtly depersonalize events, focusing on facts and occurrences rather than specific actors, which aligns perfectly with the ethos of objective reporting and formal discourse. This adds a layer of professional distance.
  • Example: Es wurden umfangreiche die Maßnahmen zur CO2-Reduktion beschlossen. (Extensive measures for CO2 reduction were decided.) – Emphasizes the Maßnahmen and their Beschluss, presenting the event as a fact, not highlighting the decision-makers.
  1. 1Emphasizing the Action/Verb: Sometimes, the verbal action itself is the most important piece of information, and the subject is secondary or generic. Stylistic es allows the verb to maintain its prominent second position while the subject recedes to a less prominent role, highlighting the dynamism of the event.
  • Example: Es klingelte unablässig an die die Tür. (The doorbell rang incessantly.) – The continuous klingeln is highlighted as the primary event, not who (or what) was ringing.
When to AVOID It:
  • With Definite Subjects: Avoid using es with subjects that are specific, known, or refer to a particular person or thing. For example, *Es kam der Präsident. sounds unnatural and grammatically awkward because der|m Präsident is a definite subject. The direct Der der Präsident kam. is far more natural and expected. The stylistic es inherently implies indefinite, new information; using it with definite subjects creates a misleading expectation.
  • Overuse in Casual Speech: While it can appear in spoken German for dramatic effect (e.g., Es ist ein der Problem aufgetaucht!), overuse in everyday, informal conversation can sound overly formal, stilted, or even ironic. Reserve it for moments where its specific rhetorical effect is genuinely desired and contributes to the intended tone, rather than simply filling a slot.
The art of using stylistic es lies in recognizing these nuanced contexts, enabling you to choose this construction not just because you can, but because it serves a specific communicative purpose, significantly elevating the sophistication and impact of your German expression. It allows you to become a more deliberate and effective communicator, a true hallmark of C2 mastery.

Common Mistakes

Even advanced learners (C2) frequently stumble with stylistic es, not because the core concept is baffling, but due to subtle interactions with other grammatical rules. Identifying and systematically correcting these common pitfalls is crucial for mastery, ensuring your German sounds genuinely native.
  1. 1Incorrect Verb Agreement (The Cardinal Sin): This is by far the most frequent and jarring error. Learners often see es in position 1 and instinctively conjugate the verb in the singular (third person singular, matching es). However, as established, es is merely a placeholder; the verb must agree with the true, postponed subject, which dictates its number and person.
  • Incorrect: *Es passierte viele der Unfälle. (Literally: "It happened many accidents.") — Here, passierte is singular, but viele der Unfälle is plural.
  • Correct: Es passierten viele der Unfälle. (Many accidents happened.) — The verb passieren is correctly plural to match viele der Unfälle.
  • Incorrect: *Es stand ein paar das Bücher auf dem(m) der Tisch. (There stood a few books on the table.) — stand is singular, ein paar das Bücher is plural.
  • Correct: Es standen ein paar das Bücher auf dem(m) der Tisch. (There stood a few books on the table.)
  • Why it's wrong: This error stems from misinterpreting es as the grammatical subject. Once you internalize es as an empty placeholder, verb agreement becomes a matter of identifying the real subject, regardless of its position.
  1. 1Redundant es when Vorfeld is Occupied: The stylistic es is a positional filler for an empty Vorfeld. If another element (e.g., a temporal adverbial, a locative phrase, or an object) already occupies the first position, es becomes superfluous and incorrect. You can only have one element in the Vorfeld of a main clause.
  • Incorrect: Gestern es kamen viele der Gäste. (Yesterday it came many guests.) — Gestern already fills the Vorfeld*.
  • Correct: Gestern kamen viele der Gäste. (Yesterday, many guests came.)
  • Why it's wrong: The es here tries to fill a slot that is already taken, violating the fundamental V2 word order principle. It shows a lack of understanding of the transient nature of stylistic es.
  1. 1Using es with Definite Subjects or Personal Pronouns: Stylistic es is primarily used to introduce new, indefinite, or general subjects. Using it with subjects that are already known, definite, or personal pronouns sounds highly unnatural and is grammatically incorrect in this context.
  • Incorrect: *Es kam der Lehrer in das das Zimmer. (It came the teacher into the room.) — der|m Lehrer is definite.
  • Correct: Der der Lehrer kam in das das Zimmer. (The teacher came into the room.)
  • Incorrect: *Es tanze ich. (It dance I.) — ich is a personal pronoun.
  • Correct: Ich tanze. (I dance.) (Or, if emphasizing the action: Tanze ich? or Heute tanze ich.).
  • Why it's wrong: This violates the very purpose of stylistic es, which is to defer new or indefinite information. Definite subjects and pronouns already constitute

Structure of Inversion

Position 1 Position 2 (Verb) Middle Position 3 (Subject)
Es
kam
plötzlich
{der|m} Gast

Meanings

This structure uses the placeholder 'Es' to shift the grammatical subject to a later position, creating a 'delayed reveal' effect.

1

Dramatic Reveal

Introducing a subject with suspense.

“Es erschien {die|f} Königin.”

“Es öffnete sich {das|n} Tor.”

Reference Table

Reference table for German Word Order: Dramatic Focus with 'Es' (Stylistic Inversion)
Form Structure Example
Affirmative
Es + V + S
Es kam {der|m} Mann.
Negative
Es + V + nicht + S
Es kam nicht {der|m} Mann.
Question
V + Es + S?
Kam es {der|m} Mann?
Variation
Es + V + Adv + S
Es erschien dort {die|f} Frau.

Formality Spectrum

Formal
Es erschien {der|m} König.

Es erschien {der|m} König. (Narrative)

Neutral
Der König erschien.

Der König erschien. (Narrative)

Informal
Da kam {der|m} König.

Da kam {der|m} König. (Narrative)

Slang
Der König war plötzlich da.

Der König war plötzlich da. (Narrative)

The Es-Inversion Map

Es-Inversion

Verbs

  • kommen to come
  • erscheinen to appear
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Examples by Level

1

Es kommt {der|m} Bus.

The bus is coming.

2

Es regnet.

It is raining.

3

Es ist {ein|n} Tag.

It is a day.

4

Es geht mir gut.

I am doing well.

1

Es spielt {ein|n} Kind.

A child is playing.

2

Es lacht {die|f} Frau.

The woman is laughing.

3

Es weint {das|n} Baby.

The baby is crying.

4

Es singt {der|m} Vogel.

The bird is singing.

1

Es erschien plötzlich {ein|n} Geist.

Suddenly, a ghost appeared.

2

Es passierte {ein|n} Unfall.

An accident happened.

3

Es öffnete sich {die|f} Tür.

The door opened.

4

Es kam {die|f} Nachricht.

The message arrived.

1

Es traten {die|f} Probleme auf.

Problems arose.

2

Es folgten {die|f} Konsequenzen.

Consequences followed.

3

Es blühen {die|f} Blumen.

The flowers are blooming.

4

Es starben {viele|pl} Menschen.

Many people died.

1

Es entfaltete sich {ein|n} Drama.

A drama unfolded.

2

Es manifestierte sich {der|m} Widerstand.

Resistance manifested.

3

Es erübrigt sich {jede|f} Diskussion.

Any discussion is superfluous.

4

Es ereignete sich {ein|n} Wunder.

A miracle occurred.

1

Es erhob sich {der|m} Vorhang.

The curtain rose.

2

Es entspann sich {ein|n} Gespräch.

A conversation ensued.

3

Es vollzog sich {der|m} Wandel.

The change took place.

4

Es entbrannte {ein|n} Streit.

A dispute broke out.

Easily Confused

German Word Order: Dramatic Focus with 'Es' (Stylistic Inversion) vs Es gibt

Learners think every 'Es' starts 'Es gibt'.

Common Mistakes

✗

Es ich gehe.

✓

Ich gehe.

Don't use 'Es' for personal subjects.
✗

Es der Mann kommt.

✓

Es kommt {der|m} Mann.

Verb must be second.
✗

Es hat {der|m} Mann gegessen.

✓

Es kam {der|m} Mann.

Transitive verbs don't work well here.
✗

Es ist {der|m} Mann gekommen.

✓

Es kam {der|m} Mann.

Simple past is preferred for narrative.

Sentence Patterns

Es ___ {der|m} ___.

Real World Usage

Storytelling constant

Es war einmal...

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💡

Focus

Use this to highlight the subject.

Smart Tips

Use 'Es' for suspense.

Der Mann kam. → Es kam {der|m} Mann.

Pronunciation

Es [unstressed] kam [stressed] {der|m} Mann [stressed].

Intonation

The 'Es' is unstressed, the focus falls on the subject at the end.

Suspenseful

Es... kam... {der|m} Mann.

Building tension.

Memorize It

Mnemonic

Es is the placeholder, the subject is the late-comer.

Visual Association

Imagine a theater stage. 'Es' is the usher holding the seat, and the real subject is the star actor arriving late.

Rhyme

Es stands in front, the verb is near, the subject waits for the end to appear.

Story

I was waiting for the bus. 'Es' stood at the stop. Then, finally, the bus arrived. I used 'Es kam {der|m} Bus' to describe the relief.

Word Web

kommenerscheinenpassierengeschehenfolgenentstehen

Challenge

Write 5 sentences about your day using 'Es' to introduce the subject.

Cultural Notes

This is a classic technique in fairy tales (Grimm).

Derived from Old High German placeholders.

Conversation Starters

“

Was ist heute passiert?

Journal Prompts

Describe a sudden event in your life.

Common Mistakes

Incorrect

Correct

Incorrect

Correct

Incorrect

Correct

Incorrect

Correct

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Test Yourself

Fill the blank

Es ___ {der|m} Mann.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: kam
Only intransitive verbs work.

Score: /1

Practice Exercises

1 exercises
Fill the blank

Es ___ {der|m} Mann.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: kam
Only intransitive verbs work.

Score: /1

Practice Bank

10 exercises
Reorder the words to create a stylistic sentence with 'es'. Sentence Reorder

Leute / es / tanzen / viele / im Club

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Es tanzen viele Leute im Club
Translate this sentence using stylistic 'es'. Translation

Many mistakes happened.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Es passierten viele Fehler
Match the sentence starts with the correct endings. Match Pairs

Match these fragments:

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Es liegen-viele Bücher auf dem Tisch., Es gibt-keine Milch mehr., Es herrscht-große Aufregung.
Complete the question form (The placeholder disappears!). Fill in the Blank

Es brennen Lichter im Haus. → ___ Lichter im Haus?

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Brennen
Which one is an 'Impersonal Es' (not stylistic)? Multiple Choice

Identify the non-stylistic use of 'es':

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Es schneit heute.
Fix the word order error. Error Correction

In der Stadt es gibt viele Museen.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Both are correct.
Choose the right verb for this formal context. Fill in the Blank

Es ___ (bestehen) dringender Handlungsbedarf.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: besteht
Create a dramatic intro. Sentence Reorder

ein Schuss / es / fiel / plötzlich

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Es fiel plötzlich ein Schuss
Translate: 'Many fans were waiting at the airport.' Translation

Many fans were waiting at the airport.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Es warteten viele Fans am Flughafen
Match the verb to the subject. Match Pairs

Match verbs and subjects:

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Es singen-die Vögel., Es brennt-die Kerze., Es fehlen-zwei Seiten.

Score: /10

FAQ (1)

No, only intransitive ones.

Scaffolded Practice

1

1

Mastery Progress

Needs Practice

Improving

Strong

Mastered

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In Other Languages

English high

There + V + S

English is more restricted.

Spanish moderate

Inversion

Spanish doesn't need a dummy 'Es'.

French moderate

Il y a

French is less flexible.

Japanese low

Topic marker

Japanese is SOV.

Arabic low

VSO order

No dummy subject needed.

Chinese low

Existential

No dummy subject.

Learning Path

Prerequisites

Previous
German Parenthetical Clauses: Adding Side-Notes (Schaltsätze)
Next
Free Indirect Discourse (Erlebte Rede)

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