~에 의한

The Korean expression ~에 의한 is a sophisticated grammatical structure used to link a cause, an agent, or a means to a subsequent noun. It is the adnominal (noun-modifying) form of the verb phrase 에 의하다, which translates to 'to be due to' or 'to depend on.' In English, we most frequently translate this as 'caused by,' 'due to,' 'by,' or 'resulting from.' Understanding this phrase is crucial for moving from basic conversational Korean to more formal, academic, or journalistic proficiency. It allows you to create complex noun phrases that describe the origin or the reason behind a specific situation or object.

Grammatical Function

It functions as an adjective phrase. It must always be followed by a noun. For example, in the phrase 'damage caused by rain,' 'caused by rain' modifies 'damage.' In Korean, this becomes '비에 의한 피해.'

When do people use it? You will encounter ~에 의한 in contexts where precision is required. While everyday speech might favor simpler connectors like ~때문에 (because of), formal writing, news reports, and legal documents rely heavily on ~에 의한 to establish clear causality. It sounds professional and objective. For instance, a doctor might discuss 'complications caused by surgery' (수술에 의한 합병증) or a lawyer might refer to 'a contract made by mutual agreement' (합의에 의한 계약). It strips away the emotional tone often found in casual speech and replaces it with a logical, structural link between two concepts.

Beyond causality, it also denotes agency or authorship. If a law is established by the government, or a discovery is made by a scientist, ~에 의한 acts as the bridge. It identifies the 'who' or 'what' behind the existence of the noun that follows. This is slightly different from the particle ~가/이 because it emphasizes the relationship of origin rather than just the subject of an action. It tells the listener that the following noun exists specifically because of the preceding noun's influence or action.

The 'By' of Authorship

In literary or artistic contexts, it can denote the creator. While 'Kim's book' is '김 씨의 책,' 'a book written by Kim' (in a formal bibliography or citation) might be described as '김 씨에 의한 저서,' though this is less common than other forms, it highlights the agency involved.

In summary, ~에 의한 is the 'logical glue' of the Korean language. It connects nouns through a relationship of cause, agency, or method. Whether you are reading a newspaper article about economic shifts 'caused by' global trends or a scientific paper about changes 'due to' chemical reactions, this phrase is the key to understanding how one thing leads to another in a formal Korean context. It elevates your language from simply stating facts to describing the intricate web of reasons behind those facts. As you progress in your Korean studies, mastering this phrase will allow you to read and write with the nuance expected in professional and academic environments.

Nuance of Necessity

It often implies a direct, almost mechanical or legal connection. It is less about 'personal reasons' and more about 'structural causes.' If you missed a meeting because you were tired, you wouldn't use this. If you missed it due to a 'scheduling error by the system,' you would.

Using ~에 의한 correctly requires a clear understanding of Korean sentence structure, specifically how adnominal phrases work. Unlike English, where 'caused by' often follows the noun (e.g., 'damage caused by rain'), in Korean, the modifier always precedes the noun. The formula is: [Noun A] + 에 의한 + [Noun B]. This translates to '[Noun B] caused by [Noun A]' or '[Noun B] by means of [Noun A].'

Basic Construction

To build a sentence, identify your cause (Noun A) and your result (Noun B). If the cause is 'mistake' (실수) and the result is 'accident' (사고), you combine them: '실수에 의한 사고' (An accident caused by a mistake). This entire unit now acts as a single noun phrase that can be the subject, object, or topic of a larger sentence.

One of the most important distinctions to make is between ~에 의한 and ~에 의해. While they look similar, their grammatical roles are distinct. ~에 의한 is an adjective (modifies a noun), whereas ~에 의해 is an adverb (modifies a verb). For example, 'The accident happened due to a mistake' (verb modification) uses ~에 의해, but 'The accident due to a mistake was serious' (noun modification) uses ~에 의한. This subtle difference is a common hurdle for intermediate learners.

In formal writing, you will often see this phrase used to define categories or types of things. For instance, in a legal context, you might see 'punishment by law' (법에 의한 처벌). Here, the law is the basis or the means. In a scientific context, you might see 'heat caused by friction' (마찰에 의한 열). The friction is the physical cause. Notice how in all these examples, the phrase is tightly bound to the noun that follows it, creating a specific, compound-like meaning.

Complex Sentences

You can use this phrase within larger, more complex sentences. '정부의 정책에 의한 경제 변화는 매우 큽니다' (Economic changes caused by government policy are very large). Here, '정부의 정책에 의한 경제 변화' is the entire subject of the sentence. The '에 의한' phrase is nested inside the subject, providing essential detail about the 'economic changes.'

Another common usage is in the passive voice or when describing authorship in a very formal way. While 'A book by Tolstoy' is usually '톨스토이의 책,' in a formal lecture or a museum exhibit, you might see '톨스토이에 의한 작품' to emphasize the agency of the creation. It frames the work as something that came into being through the person. This usage is less about 'cause' in a negative sense and more about 'origination.'

Common Noun Pairings

Certain nouns frequently follow '에 의한'. These include: 피해 (damage), 결과 (result), 영향 (influence), 변화 (change), 결정 (decision), and 사고 (accident). Learning these pairs will help you recognize the pattern instantly.

Finally, consider the level of formality. If you are speaking to a friend about why you are late, saying '교통사고에 의한 지연' (delay caused by a traffic accident) sounds like you are reading a train station announcement. In casual conversation, you would say '사고 때문에 늦었어.' Use ~에 의한 when you want to sound precise, objective, or when you are writing for a formal audience. It is a tool for clarity and professional tone.

You are most likely to encounter ~에 의한 in environments where information is being delivered formally. This includes news broadcasts, newspaper articles, academic journals, legal documents, and official announcements. It is the language of 'the record.' When a news anchor reports on a natural disaster, they won't just say 'it rained and things broke.' They will speak of '피해에 의한 복구 작업' (recovery work due to damage) or '태풍에 의한 정전' (power outage caused by a typhoon).

The Newsroom

In Korean media, objectivity is conveyed through specific grammatical choices. '~에 의한' is a staple here. It allows reporters to link events without adding personal bias. For example, '수요와 공급에 의한 가격 변동' (price fluctuations caused by demand and supply) sounds like an economic fact, whereas other connectors might sound more like an opinion.

In the workplace, ~에 의한 is used in reports and presentations. If you are explaining a project's success or failure, using this phrase shows a high level of professionalism. You might talk about '철저한 계획에 의한 성공' (success due to thorough planning). It demonstrates that you have analyzed the cause-and-effect relationship of your work. In emails, especially those sent to other departments or clients, this phrase helps in stating facts clearly and avoiding misunderstandings.

Academic settings are another primary location for this phrase. Whether it's a textbook or a university lecture, ~에 의한 is used to describe theories, physical laws, and historical developments. A history professor might discuss '전쟁에 의한 영토 변화' (territorial changes caused by war). A science textbook might explain '중력에 의한 운동' (movement caused by gravity). In these contexts, the phrase is essential for defining the parameters of the subject matter.

Public Announcements

If you are in Korea, listen to the announcements in subways or airports. You might hear: '기상 악화에 의한 열차 지연' (Train delay due to worsening weather conditions). This is a classic use of the phrase to provide a formal reason for a public service disruption.

Finally, you will see this in legal and administrative contexts. Contracts, terms of service, and government regulations are filled with ~에 의한. It defines the authority under which actions are taken. '본 계약에 의한 권리' (rights according to this contract) or '대통령령에 의한 조치' (measures by presidential decree). In these cases, the phrase isn't just descriptive; it has legal weight, specifying the exact source of authority or cause.

Literature and Formal Speeches

While less common in modern novels, it appears in formal speeches or essays where the author wants to sound profound or highly structured. It creates a sense of inevitability or logical progression in the narrative.

In conclusion, while you might not use ~에 의한 to ask for a coffee or chat with a friend, it is the language of the world around you in Korea. It is the language of the news you watch, the signs you read, and the professional life you might lead. Recognizing it will significantly improve your comprehension of formal Korean and help you navigate the more structured aspects of Korean society.

One of the most frequent errors learners make is confusing ~에 의한 with its adverbial counterpart, ~에 의해. This is a fundamental grammatical distinction. ~에 의한 must always modify a noun that immediately follows it. ~에 의해, on the other hand, usually modifies a verb or the entire sentence. For example, saying '태풍에 의한 집이 무너졌다' is incorrect because '에 의한' is trying to modify '집' (house), but the sentence is trying to say the house collapsed because of the typhoon. The correct form would be '태풍에 의해 집이 무너졌다' (The house collapsed by/due to the typhoon).

The Noun Test

A simple way to check: is there a noun right after the phrase? If yes, and that noun is being described by the cause, use '에 의한'. If the phrase is describing how or why an action happened, use '에 의해'.

Another common mistake is overusing ~에 의한 in casual conversation. Because it is a formal, written-style expression, using it while hanging out with friends can make you sound like a textbook or a news reporter. For instance, if you say '비에 의한 지각이야' (It's a lateness caused by rain) to a friend, it sounds very stiff. In casual settings, ~때문에 is almost always the better choice: '비 때문에 늦었어' (I'm late because of the rain). Learners often fall into the trap of using formal grammar they've just learned in the wrong social context.

A third mistake involves the nuance of causality. ~에 의한 usually implies a direct, objective cause. It is rarely used for personal motivations or feelings. You wouldn't say '사랑에 의한 선물' (a gift caused by love) in a romantic context; '사랑으로 준 선물' or '사랑하는 마음으로 준 선물' would be much more natural. ~에 의한 is better suited for physical, legal, or logical causes rather than emotional ones. Using it for emotions can make the sentiment feel cold or clinical.

Confusing with ~로 인한

There is another phrase, '~로 인한', which is very similar. While often interchangeable, '~로 인한' specifically emphasizes that the second noun is a 'result' or 'damage' arising from the first. '~에 의한' is slightly broader, covering agency and means as well. Using '~에 의한' when '~로 인한' is more specific to 'damage' is a subtle nuance error.

Finally, watch out for word order. Because English speakers are used to 'Noun + caused by + Noun,' they sometimes try to translate that directly into Korean. They might say '피해 에 의한 태풍' (damage caused by typhoon), but this is backwards. In Korean, the cause always comes first: '태풍에 의한 피해.' Reversing the order completely changes or destroys the meaning of the sentence. Always remember: [Cause] + 에 의한 + [Result].

By avoiding these common pitfalls—distinguishing it from the adverbial form, using it in the right social context, reserving it for objective causes, and maintaining the correct word order—you will be able to use ~에 의한 with the precision and sophistication of a native speaker.

To truly master ~에 의한, you must understand how it relates to other Korean expressions of causality. The Korean language has a rich variety of ways to say 'because of' or 'due to,' each with its own specific nuance and level of formality. Comparing these will help you choose the most appropriate word for your specific situation.

~에 의한 vs. ~로 인한

~로 인한 is perhaps the closest synonym. It also modifies a noun and means 'caused by.' However, ~로 인한 is almost exclusively used for negative results, like 'damage,' 'loss,' or 'disease' (e.g., '담배로 인한 질병' - disease caused by smoking). ~에 의한 is more neutral and can be used for positive or neutral outcomes, as well as to denote agency or means.

The most common alternative in daily life is ~때문에. This is the 'all-purpose' cause-and-effect connector. It is less formal than ~에 의한 and can be used with both nouns and verbs (as ~기 때문에). While ~에 의한 sounds like a report, ~때문에 sounds like a conversation. If you want to say 'I'm late because of the traffic,' use ~때문에. If you are writing a report on 'Traffic delays caused by roadwork,' use ~에 의한.

Another formal alternative is ~에 따른. This translates more closely to 'according to' or 'following.' It is used when one thing changes or happens in response to another. For example, '변화에 따른 대책' (measures according to/following the changes). While ~에 의한 focuses on the direct cause, ~에 따른 focuses on the subsequent response or the relationship of 'following' a certain state.

~가/이 만든 vs. ~에 의한

When talking about authorship, ~가 만든 (made by) is the standard way to express this in most contexts. '내가 만든 빵' (bread I made). ~에 의한 is reserved for very formal or abstract agency, such as '인간에 의한 창조' (creation by humans) in a philosophical text. Using '에 의한' for simple making of things sounds overly dramatic or clinical.

Finally, consider ~로 말미암아. This is a very literary and somewhat archaic way of saying 'due to' or 'arising from.' You will mostly see this in older literature or religious texts. It carries a sense of a grand or significant cause. In modern, practical Korean, ~에 의한 has largely taken its place in formal writing. Understanding these alternatives allows you to not only understand what is being said but also to perceive the tone and intent of the speaker or writer.

Summary Table

• ~에 의한: Formal, objective, adnominal (modifies noun).
• ~에 의해: Formal, objective, adverbial (modifies verb).
• ~로 인한: Formal, specifically for negative results/damage.
• ~때문에: Casual/Neutral, general purpose.
• ~에 따른: Formal, 'according to' or 'following'.