B2 Adjectives & Adverbs 10 min read Easy

German Adjective Comparison: Using the Umlaut (älter, größer)

One-syllable German adjectives with 'a', 'o', or 'u' almost always require an umlaut in their comparative form.
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Grammar Rule in 30 Seconds

Many short, one-syllable German adjectives add an umlaut (ä, ö, ü) when forming the comparative and superlative forms.

  • Add -er for comparative: 'alt' becomes 'älter'.
  • Add -ste for superlative: 'alt' becomes 'am ältesten'.
  • Only applies to specific one-syllable adjectives with a, o, or u.
Adjective (a/o/u) + Umlaut + er = Comparative

Overview

German adjective comparison often presents a nuanced challenge for learners, particularly with the phenomenon of vowel modification, known as Umlaut. While the fundamental principle of adding -er for the comparative degree is straightforward, a significant subset of adjectives—primarily monosyllabic ones containing the stem vowels a, o, or u—undergo a compulsory vowel change to ä, ö, or ü respectively. This linguistic feature is not merely a stylistic choice but a grammatical requirement, crucial for achieving natural and correct German expression at the B2 level and beyond.

Mastering this aspect distinguishes proficient speakers who understand the deeper phonetic and historical underpinnings of the language from those whose speech may sound less idiomatic. Ignoring the Umlaut in these specific comparative forms can lead to grammatical inaccuracies, hinder comprehension, or signal a lower proficiency level. This guide provides a comprehensive framework for understanding, forming, and correctly applying German comparative adjectives that involve the Umlaut, exploring its linguistic rationale, common patterns, and notable exceptions.

How This Grammar Works

Adjectives in German describe qualities or states of nouns. When comparing two items, individuals, or concepts based on a particular quality, the comparative form of the adjective is employed. The standard formation involves appending the suffix -er to the base form of the adjective, as seen in schnell (fast) becoming schneller (faster).
However, a distinct and grammatically integral pattern emerges for a specific group of adjectives: those featuring the vowels a, o, or u in their stem. For these adjectives, the vowel is umlauted to ä, ö, or ü before the -er suffix is added. For instance, alt (old) transforms into älter (older), groß (big/tall) becomes größer (bigger/taller), and jung (young) changes to jünger (younger).
This Umlaut phenomenon is deeply rooted in the historical phonology of Germanic languages, specifically i-mutation. Originally, a following i or j sound in a suffix would trigger a fronting of the preceding back vowel (a, o, u). Over time, the i or j was often lost or assimilated, but its effect on the vowel remained, becoming a distinctive feature of word formation.
While its origins are historical, in modern German, the Umlaut in these comparatives serves a phonetic function, making the words flow more smoothly and adhering to established morphological patterns. It is a mandatory change, not optional; using großer without the Umlaut for größer would be ungrammatical in standard German. This rule predominantly applies to monosyllabic adjectives, but there are notable polysyllabic exceptions, such as gesund (healthy) becoming gesünder.
Understanding How This Grammar Works requires recognizing that the Umlaut is an intrinsic part of the comparative formation for these adjectives, signalling the grammatical degree of comparison. It is distinct from other adjective modifications and is a hallmark of native-like accuracy. For example, to accurately state Mein das neue Haus ist größer als mein(n) altes., you must apply the Umlaut.
This rule extends across all grammatical contexts where these adjectives are used comparatively, whether attributively (e.g., der ältere Mann), predicatively (e.g., Er ist größer.), or adverbially (e.g., Sie fährt schneller.).

Formation Pattern

1
The formation of comparative adjectives involving the Umlaut follows specific, albeit sometimes irregular, patterns. The general rule is: Base Adjective + Vowel Umlaut (if applicable) + -er. This primarily applies to monosyllabic adjectives with a, o, or u as their root vowel.
2
1. Regular Umlauting Adjectives (Vowel a, o, u):
3
Most monosyllabic adjectives containing a, o, or u will undergo Umlaut. This is the most common pattern to internalize.
4
| Base Form | Comparative Form | Example Usage (Predicative/Adverbial) |
5
|:----------------|:-----------------|:------------------------------------------------------------------------|
6
| alt (old) | älter | Er ist jetzt älter als ich. (He is older now than me.) |
7
| arm (poor) | ärmer | Die Situation wird ärmer. (The situation is getting poorer.) |
8
| hart (hard) | härter | Der Kampf wird härter. (The fight is getting harder.) |
9
| kalt (cold) | kälter | Das Wetter ist heute kälter. (The weather is colder today.) |
10
| lang (long) | länger | Die die Reise ist länger als geplant. (The trip is longer than planned.) |
11
| oft (often) | öfter | Ich besuche ihn öfter jetzt. (I visit him more often now.) |
12
| groß (big/tall)| größer | Mein(n) Bruder ist größer als ich. (My brother is taller than me.) |
13
| kurz (short) | kürzer | Die Tage werden kürzer. (The days are getting shorter.) |
14
| scharf (sharp) | schärfer | Das Essen ist schärfer als erwartet. (The food is spicier than expected.) |
15
| stark (strong) | stärker | Das Signal ist hier stärker. (The signal is stronger here.) |
16
| warm (warm) | wärmer | Der Kaffee könnte wärmer sein. (The coffee could be warmer.) |
17
| jung (young) | jünger | Sie sieht jünger aus. (She looks younger.) |
18
2. Irregular Comparative Forms:
19
Some common adjectives have irregular comparative forms that do not strictly follow the Umlaut rule or involve other stem changes. These must be memorized.
20
| Base Form | Comparative Form | Notes |
21
|:--------------|:-----------------|:------------------------------------------------------------------------|
22
| gut (good) | besser | Completely irregular. |
23
| viel (much) | mehr | Completely irregular. |
24
| gern (gladly)| lieber | Completely irregular. Functions adverbially. |
25
| hoch (high) | höher | The c in the stem is dropped. |
26
| nah (near) | näher | Vowel change to ä, but historically not a true Umlaut. The h remains. |
27
3. Adjectives Ending in -el or -er:
28
For adjectives ending in -el or -er, the e before the l or r is typically dropped before the comparative suffix -er is added. Umlaut rules still apply if the stem vowel is a, o, u.
29
| Base Form | Comparative Form | Notes |
30
|:----------------|:-----------------|:-------------------------------------------------------------------|
31
| dunkel (dark) | dunkler | e dropped, no Umlaut (vowel u not stem vowel for Umlaut). |
32
| teuer (expensive)| teurer | e dropped, no Umlaut (vowel eu is a diphthong). |
33
| edel (noble) | edler | e dropped, no Umlaut. |
34
4. Polysyllabic Exceptions:
35
While the Umlaut rule primarily targets monosyllabic adjectives, there is one critical polysyllabic exception:
36
| Base Form | Comparative Form | Notes |
37
|:------------------|:-----------------|:-----------------------------------------------------------------------|
38
| gesund (healthy) | gesünder | Despite being two syllables, it takes an Umlaut. This is a crucial exception. |
39
5. Adjectives That Do Not Umlaut:
40
Crucially, not all monosyllabic adjectives with a, o, or u in their stem take an Umlaut in the comparative. These exceptions often stem from specific phonetic properties or historical developments where i-mutation did not occur or was later undone. Learners must be aware of these to avoid over-generalization.
41
| Base Form | Comparative Form | Reason/Notes |
42
|:----------------|:-----------------|:---------------------------------------------------------------------------|
43
| bunt (colorful)| bunter | No Umlaut. |
44
| falsch (false) | falscher | No Umlaut. |
45
| froh (happy) | froher | No Umlaut. |
46
| glatt (smooth) | glatter | No Umlaut. |
47
| hohl (hollow) | hohler | No Umlaut. |
48
| klar (clear) | klarer | No Umlaut. |
49
| laut (loud) | lauter | No Umlaut. (Laut also has an adverbial comparative without Umlauting). |
50
| platt (flat) | matter | No Umlaut. |
51
| roh (raw) | roher | No Umlaut. |
52
| schlank (slim) | schlanker | No Umlaut. |
53
| stolz (proud) | stolzer | No Umlaut. |
54
| voll (full) | voller | No Umlaut. |
55
| wahr (true) | wahrer | No Umlaut. |
56
To effectively apply these rules, it is helpful to approach them systematically: first, check if the adjective is monosyllabic. Second, identify its stem vowel (a, o, u). Third, consider if it is one of the common irregular forms or non-umlauting exceptions. Finally, add the -er suffix.

When To Use It

The comparative form of adjectives with Umlaut is used whenever you are directly comparing two nouns, pronouns, or concepts based on a particular quality, indicating that one possesses that quality to a greater degree than the other. This requires the use of als (than) to link the two compared entities.
1. Direct Comparison with als:
This is the most common application. You use the comparative adjective followed by als and the item being compared.
  • Meine die neue Kamera ist besser als meine die alte. (My new camera is better than my old one.)
  • Dieses das Buch ist länger als der Film. (This book is longer than the film.)
  • Er spricht deutlicher als sein der Bruder. (He speaks more clearly than his brother.)
2. Attributive Use (before a noun):
When the comparative adjective precedes a noun, it must be declined according to the noun's gender, number, and case, just like any other adjective. The Umlaut remains a fixed part of the stem.
  • Der ältere Mann las ein Buch. (The older man read a book.)
  • Sie sucht ein größeres Haus. (She is looking for a bigger house.)
  • Wir brauchen eine stärkere Batterie. (We need a stronger battery.)
3. Predicative Use (after a verb like sein, werden, bleiben):
When the comparative adjective functions as a predicate, it does not decline. The Umlaut is still present in its formation.
  • Das das Wetter wird kälter. (The weather is getting colder.)
  • Sein der Plan war schärfer als meiner. (His plan was sharper than mine.)
  • Meine die Laune ist heute besser. (My mood is better today.)
4. Adverbial Use (modifying a verb or another adjective/adverb):
Comparative adjectives can also function as adverbs, describing how an action is performed or modifying another adjective/adverb. They do not decline in this function.
  • Sie läuft schneller als er. (She runs faster than him.)
  • Er kommt immer später zur die Arbeit. (He always comes later to work.)
  • Das das Auto fährt ruhiger als das das alte. (The car drives more quietly than the old one.)
5. In Fixed Expressions and Colloquialisms:
The Umlaut comparative appears in many common phrases and idioms, demonstrating its integration into everyday language.
  • je ... desto ... (the ... the ...): Je älter, desto weiser. (The older, the wiser.)
  • immer + Komparativ: Es wird immer dunkler. (It's getting darker and darker.)
  • früher oder später (sooner or later)
Mastering these applications is essential for B2 learners to articulate nuanced comparisons and express themselves with native-like precision across various conversational and written contexts. It allows for more sophisticated descriptions and evaluations, moving beyond simple statements of fact.

Common Mistakes

Learners at the B2 level frequently encounter specific pitfalls when forming and using comparative adjectives with Umlaut. Recognizing and understanding the underlying reasons for these errors is crucial for correction and advancement.
1. Forgetting the Umlaut:
This is perhaps the most prevalent error. Omitting the Umlaut on adjectives like alt, groß, jung, kalt, lang, scharf, stark, or warm results in grammatically incorrect forms. For example, using kalter instead of kälter is a clear indication of non-native speech. The phonetic expectation in German for these specific words is the Umlauted vowel.
  • Incorrect: Der der Kaffee ist warmer.
  • Correct: Der der Kaffee ist wärmer. (The coffee is warmer.)
2. Over-generalizing the Umlaut Rule:
Conversely, learners sometimes apply the Umlaut to adjectives that do not take it, particularly those from the exception list (e.g., bunt, froh, laut, schlank, stolz, voll, wahr). This leads to non-existent forms like bünter or fröher.
  • Incorrect: Meine die neuen Farben sind bünter.
  • Correct: Meine die neuen Farben sind bunter. (My new colors are more colorful.)
3. Incorrectly Using mehr:
A common error influenced by English

Comparative and Superlative Formation

Base Comparative Superlative
alt
älter
am ältesten
groß
größer
am größten
jung
jünger
am jüngsten
kurz
kürzer
am kürzesten
hart
härter
am härtesten
stark
stärker
am stärksten

Meanings

The process of modifying the root vowel of a monosyllabic adjective to indicate a higher degree of a quality.

1

Comparative

Comparing two entities.

“Er ist größer als sein Vater.”

“Das Haus ist älter als das Museum.”

2

Superlative

The highest degree of a quality.

“Das ist der größte Baum.”

“Sie ist die älteste Person hier.”

Reference Table

Reference table for German Adjective Comparison: Using the Umlaut (älter, größer)
Form Structure Example
Comparative
Base + Umlaut + er
älter
Superlative
am + Base + Umlaut + sten
am ältesten
Negative
nicht + comparative
nicht älter
Question
Ist ... komparativ?
Ist er älter?
Short Answer
Ja, er ist älter.
Ja, er ist älter.
Variation
mit + Dativ
mit dem älteren Mann

Formality Spectrum

Formal
Das Haus ist älter.

Das Haus ist älter. (Describing property)

Neutral
Das Haus ist älter.

Das Haus ist älter. (Describing property)

Informal
Das Haus ist älter.

Das Haus ist älter. (Describing property)

Slang
Die Bude ist älter.

Die Bude ist älter. (Describing property)

Umlaut Mutation Logic

Base Adjective

Vowel Change

  • a -> ä alt -> älter
  • o -> ö groß -> größer
  • u -> ü jung -> jünger

Comparative vs Superlative

Comparative
schneller faster
Superlative
am schnellsten the fastest
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Examples by Level

1

Das ist älter.

That is older.

2

Er ist größer.

He is taller.

3

Das ist süßer.

That is sweeter.

4

Es ist kälter.

It is colder.

1

Mein Auto ist schneller als dein Auto.

My car is faster than your car.

2

Das ist der größte Hund.

That is the biggest dog.

3

Heute ist es kälter als gestern.

Today it is colder than yesterday.

4

Sie ist jünger als ich.

She is younger than me.

1

Das ist am längsten.

That is the longest.

2

Er ist der klügste Schüler.

He is the smartest student.

3

Das ist ein kürzerer Weg.

That is a shorter way.

4

Es war der härteste Tag.

It was the hardest day.

1

Diese Aufgabe ist schwieriger als die letzte.

This task is more difficult than the last one.

2

Er ist am stärksten motiviert.

He is the most motivated.

3

Das ist die schärfste Soße.

That is the spiciest sauce.

4

Wir brauchen einen größeren Plan.

We need a bigger plan.

1

Die ärmsten Regionen leiden am meisten.

The poorest regions suffer the most.

2

Ein gröberer Fehler ist kaum denkbar.

A grosser mistake is hardly imaginable.

3

Das ist der schrägste Humor.

That is the weirdest humor.

4

Er ist ein grober, aber herzlicher Mensch.

He is a rough but warm-hearted person.

1

Die nächtliche Kälte war am beißendsten.

The nocturnal cold was the most biting.

2

Ein noch kürzerer Prozess ist unmöglich.

An even shorter process is impossible.

3

Das ist die kränkste Vorstellung.

That is the sickest idea.

4

Er ist der gütigste aller Könige.

He is the kindest of all kings.

Easily Confused

German Adjective Comparison: Using the Umlaut (älter, größer) vs Umlaut vs. No Umlaut

Learners add umlauts to words like 'klar' (klarer).

German Adjective Comparison: Using the Umlaut (älter, größer) vs Comparative vs. Superlative

Mixing up 'am ...sten' and '-er'.

German Adjective Comparison: Using the Umlaut (älter, größer) vs Extra 'e' in Superlative

Forgetting the 'e' in 'am ...esten'.

Common Mistakes

✗

alter

✓

älter

Forgot the umlaut.
✗

großerer

✓

größer

Double suffix.
✗

am altsten

✓

am ältesten

Missing umlaut and extra e.
✗

mehr alt

✓

älter

Direct translation of 'more old'.
✗

kalterer

✓

kälter

Incorrect base.
✗

am jungsten

✓

am jüngsten

Missing umlaut.
✗

mehr groß

✓

größer

Avoid 'mehr' with short adjectives.
✗

am hartsten

✓

am härtesten

Missing extra e.
✗

kluger

✓

klüger

Forgot umlaut.
✗

am kurzsten

✓

am kürzesten

Missing extra e.
✗

schärfer

✓

schärfer

Correct, but ensure context is right.
✗

am grobsten

✓

am gröbsten

Missing umlaut.
✗

am schrägsten

✓

am schrägsten

Correct, but check spelling.
✗

am kränksten

✓

am kränksten

Correct.

Sentence Patterns

Mein ___ ist ___ als dein ___.

Das ist der ___ ___ der Welt.

Heute ist es ___ als gestern.

Das ist am ___.

Real World Usage

Shopping very common

Haben Sie das in einer größeren Größe?

Social Media common

Das ist der schönste Tag!

Job Interview occasional

Ich bin am stärksten motiviert.

Travel common

Welcher Weg ist kürzer?

Food Delivery common

Ich möchte die schärfste Soße.

Texting constant

Bin am schnellsten da!

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💡

Check the Vowel

Always check if the adjective has a, o, or u before you start.
⚠️

Don't Over-Umlaut

Not all adjectives take it. Only short ones!
🎯

Superlative 'e'

Remember the extra 'e' for t/d endings.
💬

Sound Natural

Using the umlaut makes you sound like a native speaker.

Smart Tips

Check for a, o, or u.

Das ist alter. → Das ist älter.

Check the last letter for t or d.

Das ist am altsten. → Das ist am ältesten.

Always use 'als'.

Er ist älter wie ich. → Er ist älter als ich.

Use the correct superlative.

Das ist der wichtigste Punkt. → Das ist der wichtigste Punkt.

Pronunciation

IPA: /ɛ/, /ø/, /y/

Umlaut sounds

ä is like 'e' in 'bed', ö is like 'u' in 'fur', ü is like 'ee' with rounded lips.

Comparative stress

Das ist ÄL-ter.

Emphasis on the change.

Memorize It

Mnemonic

Think of the umlaut as 'two little eyes' looking at the comparison.

Visual Association

Imagine a giant 'O' turning into an 'Ö' when it grows bigger.

Rhyme

If the word is short and has a, o, or u, the umlaut is what you must do!

Story

A small boy (jung) wants to be older (älter). He eats a lot and becomes the biggest (am größten) boy in town.

Word Web

altgroßjungkurzhartstarkkalt

Challenge

Find 5 objects in your room and compare them using the umlaut rule out loud.

Cultural Notes

Germans value precision; using the correct umlaut is seen as a sign of education.

Austrians often use these forms in a very polite, formal way.

Swiss German speakers often use these forms, though pronunciation varies.

The umlaut originated from 'i-mutation' in Proto-Germanic.

Conversation Starters

“

Was ist älter: dein Handy oder dein Computer?

“

Wer ist in deiner Familie am größten?

“

Was ist der schwierigste Teil beim Deutschlernen?

“

Was ist die schärfste Speise, die du je gegessen hast?

Journal Prompts

Beschreibe deine Stadt.
Vergleiche zwei deiner Freunde.
Was war dein härtester Tag?
Diskutiere die größten Herausforderungen der Zukunft.

Common Mistakes

Incorrect

Correct

Incorrect

Correct

Incorrect

Correct

Incorrect

Correct

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Test Yourself

Fill in the comparative.

Er ist ___ (alt) als ich.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: älter
Monosyllabic + a -> ä.
Choose the correct superlative. Multiple Choice

Das ist ___ (groß) Haus.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: am größten
Correct superlative form.
Fix the sentence. Error Correction

Find and fix the mistake:

Das ist der kluger Schüler.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: der klügste
Superlative needed.
Transform to comparative. Sentence Transformation

Er ist jung. -> Er ist ___.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: jünger
Umlaut mutation.
True or False? True False Rule

All adjectives take an umlaut.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: False
Only specific ones.
Complete the dialogue. Dialogue Completion

A: Ist das kurz? B: Nein, das ist ___.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: kürzer
Comparative form.
Build the sentence. Sentence Building

ist / am / das / härtesten

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Das ist am härtesten.
Correct word order.
Match base to comparative. Match Pairs

Match each item on the left with its pair on the right:

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: älter
Correct match.

Score: /8

Practice Exercises

8 exercises
Fill in the comparative.

Er ist ___ (alt) als ich.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: älter
Monosyllabic + a -> ä.
Choose the correct superlative. Multiple Choice

Das ist ___ (groß) Haus.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: am größten
Correct superlative form.
Fix the sentence. Error Correction

Find and fix the mistake:

Das ist der kluger Schüler.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: der klügste
Superlative needed.
Transform to comparative. Sentence Transformation

Er ist jung. -> Er ist ___.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: jünger
Umlaut mutation.
True or False? True False Rule

All adjectives take an umlaut.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: False
Only specific ones.
Complete the dialogue. Dialogue Completion

A: Ist das kurz? B: Nein, das ist ___.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: kürzer
Comparative form.
Build the sentence. Sentence Building

ist / am / das / härtesten

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Das ist am härtesten.
Correct word order.
Match base to comparative. Match Pairs

alt -> ?

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: älter
Correct match.

Score: /8

Practice Bank

10 exercises
Translate to German using a comparative form. Translation

The summer is becoming warmer every year.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Der Sommer wird jedes Jahr wärmer.
Reorder the words to make a correct sentence. Sentence Reorder

ist | als | Bruder | mein | jünger | ich

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Mein Bruder ist jünger als ich
Match the adjective with its correct comparative form. Match Pairs

Match the pairs:

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: arm-ärmer, kurz-kürzer, stark-stärker
Fill in the blank with 'hoch' in the comparative. Fill in the Blank

Das Gebäude ist ___ als der Baum.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: höher
Which comparative is irregular but still takes an umlaut? Multiple Choice

Choose the correct form of 'nah':

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: näher
Fix the sentence: 'Dieses Kleid ist langer als das andere.' Error Correction

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Dieses Kleid ist länger als das andere.
Complete the comparison using 'hart'. Fill in the Blank

Diamanten sind ___ als Glas.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: härter
Translate: 'I am taller than you.' Translation

Translate the sentence.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Ich bin größer als du.
Match the exceptions (no umlaut). Match Pairs

Match the pairs:

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: bunt-bunter, stolz-stolzer, froh-froher
Which of these takes an umlaut despite having two syllables? Multiple Choice

Pick the correct form:

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: gesünder

Score: /10

FAQ (8)

The rule only applies to specific monosyllabic adjectives with a, o, or u.

No, always use 'älter'.

Check the base form of the adjective.

'Gut' is irregular and becomes 'besser'.

Yes, it is standard German.

Yes, it is required.

You will be understood, but it's grammatically incorrect.

Yes, some newer loanwords do not follow this.

Scaffolded Practice

1

1

2

2

3

3

4

4

Mastery Progress

Needs Practice

Improving

Strong

Mastered

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In Other Languages

Spanish low

más + adjective

German uses internal vowel changes; Spanish uses external words.

French low

plus + adjective

German is synthetic (word-internal); French is analytic.

Japanese none

yori + adjective

Japanese does not change the adjective form.

Arabic partial

af'al structure

Arabic uses a template; German uses vowel mutation.

Chinese none

bi + adjective

Chinese adjectives are invariant.

English moderate

-er / more

German umlauts are a unique Germanic feature.

Learning Path

Prerequisites

Previous
Comparing with 'than' (Vergleich mit als)
Next
Irregular Comparatives: Better, More, Preferred (gut, viel, gern)

Continue With

B2 Builds On

Irregular Comparatives: Better, More, Preferred (gut, viel, gern)

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Comparing with 'than' (Vergleich mit als)

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Equality Comparisons (so... wie)

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Overview To express the highest degree of a quality or action in German, you employ the superlative. This grammar refere...

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