~에 의해서

The Korean phrase ~에 의해서 is a sophisticated grammatical construction used to indicate the agent of an action, the cause of a phenomenon, or the basis upon which something is decided or performed. In English, it most closely translates to 'by,' 'due to,' 'through,' or 'according to.' While beginners often rely on simple particles like -가/이 or -에게 to denote subjects or agents, ~에 의해서 elevates the register of the sentence, making it suitable for academic, journalistic, and formal contexts. It is particularly prevalent in passive voice constructions where the focus is on the result rather than the doer. For instance, instead of saying 'The wind broke the window,' a formal report might say 'The window was broken by the wind,' utilizing this phrase to emphasize the causality and the affected object.

Grammatical Origin

It is derived from the verb 의하다 (ui-hada), which means 'to be based on' or 'to depend on.' The addition of -아/어서 creates a causal connective form.

Formal Register

This phrase is rarely used in casual conversation with friends. It belongs to the domain of 'Written Style' (문어체) or formal speeches.

Causality vs. Agency

It can represent both a human agent (by the author) and a non-human cause (by the earthquake).

Understanding the nuance of ~에 의해서 requires recognizing that it often implies a direct link between the source and the outcome. In scientific explanations, it describes how a certain result was achieved through a specific mechanism. In legal texts, it describes how a person is bound by certain regulations. It is not merely a preposition but a logical bridge. When you use this phrase, you are signaling to your listener that you are providing a detailed, objective explanation. It moves the discourse from 'what happened' to 'why and by what means it happened.' This is why it is a staple of the TOPIK (Test of Proficiency in Korean) intermediate and advanced levels. To master it, one must practice identifying the 'source' noun that precedes the particle 에. Whether that source is a person, an organization, a natural force, or an abstract concept, ~에 의해서 will always point back to it as the primary driver of the following verb's action.

Furthermore, the phrase is essential for translating English passive voice sentences into natural-sounding formal Korean. While Korean has its own passive verb forms (like -이/히/리/기-), they are not always applicable. In such cases, using the active verb with ~에 의해서 provides a clear alternative. For example, 'The law was changed by the government' can be expressed as '정부에 의해서 법이 바뀌었습니다.' This structure is vital for anyone looking to read Korean news or academic journals, as it provides the necessary framework for complex logical arguments. It also helps in distinguishing between a simple reason (because of) and a direct agent (by). While -때문에 focuses on the reason, ~에 의해서 focuses on the instrument or the entity that actively brought about the change. This subtle distinction is what separates a fluent speaker from a beginner.

Using ~에 의해서 correctly involves understanding its syntactic placement and the types of nouns it pairs with. The basic structure is [Noun] + 에 의해서 + [Verb/Adjective]. The noun preceding the phrase is the 'source' or 'agent.' This source can be a concrete entity, like a person or an organization, or an abstract concept, like 'fate,' 'law,' or 'accident.' The verb that follows is often in the passive voice or describes a state that resulted from the noun. For example, in the sentence 'The project was completed by the team,' 'the team' is the noun, and 'was completed' is the resulting action. In Korean, this becomes '팀에 의해서 프로젝트가 완료되었습니다.' Note how the emphasis shifts slightly to the team's role in the completion.

Passive Voice Pairing

Commonly used with passive verbs ending in -어지다 or verbs like 발생하다 (to occur) and 결정되다 (to be decided).

Adnominal Form

When modifying a noun, use ~에 의한. Example: '인간에 의한 파괴' (Destruction by humans).

Exclusion of Simple Reasons

Do not use it for simple personal reasons like 'I'm late by the bus.' Use -때문에 instead.

One of the most important aspects of using ~에 의해서 is recognizing when *not* to use it. In everyday conversation, Koreans prefer using the subject markers -이/가 or the particle -한테/에게 for people. If you say '친구에 의해서 선물을 받았어요' (I received a gift by my friend), it sounds overly robotic and strange, as if the friend were a mechanical delivery system. Instead, '친구한테 선물을 받았어요' is natural. ~에 의해서 is reserved for situations where the 'agency' is formal or the 'cause' is significant. It is used when you want to describe a process or a formal attribution. For instance, 'This book was written by a famous author' (이 책은 유명한 작가에 의해서 쓰였습니다) is perfectly acceptable in a literary review, but in a chat, you'd just say '유명한 작가가 쓴 책이에요.'

Another nuance is the distinction between ~에 의해서 and ~에 의해. Grammatically, they are almost identical, but -서 adds a slight emphasis on the 'method' or 'process' of the cause. In fast-paced news reporting, ~에 의해 is more common because it is shorter. However, in detailed academic explanations, ~에 의해서 is often preferred to provide a rhythmic pause in the sentence. When you are writing an essay for the TOPIK exam, using ~에 의한 (the adjective form) to connect two nouns—such as '태풍에 의한 피해' (damage caused by the typhoon)—will demonstrate a high level of grammatical proficiency. Mastery of these variations allows you to navigate different writing styles with ease, from technical manuals to poetic descriptions of nature's forces.

You will encounter ~에 의해서 most frequently in environments where objective, factual, or formal information is being conveyed. The primary 'habitat' for this phrase is the Korean news media. News anchors and reporters use it constantly to describe the causes of events without sounding biased. For example, when reporting on a fire, they might say '전기 합선에 의해서 화재가 발생했습니다' (The fire occurred due to an electrical short circuit). This phrasing attributes the cause to a specific factor in a clinical, professional manner. Similarly, in weather reports, you will hear it used to describe phenomena like '고기압에 의해서 날씨가 맑겠습니다' (The weather will be clear due to high pressure). It provides a scientific grounding to the statements being made.

Documentaries and Lectures

Educational content uses this phrase to explain cause-and-effect relationships in history, science, and sociology.

Legal and Official Documents

Laws and contracts use it to define authority, such as '법률에 의해서 금지됨' (Prohibited by law).

Art Galleries and Museums

Descriptions of artifacts often mention they were 'created by' (제작되었습니다) a specific person or era.

In the academic world, ~에 의해서 is indispensable. If you are reading a research paper in Korean, you will see it in the 'Results' and 'Conclusion' sections. Researchers use it to link their findings to specific variables. For instance, '실험 결과는 온도 변화에 의해서 달라졌습니다' (The experimental results varied due to temperature changes). It allows for a precise description of causality that is required in the sciences. Furthermore, in historical contexts, it is used to describe how certain dynasties fell or how wars were started, attributing these massive events to specific political or social movements. It lends an air of authority and objectivity to historical analysis, moving away from simple storytelling to rigorous academic inquiry.

Even in business settings, ~에 의해서 is used during presentations and meetings. When a manager explains why sales increased, they might say '마케팅 전략에 의해서 매출이 상승했습니다' (Sales rose due to the marketing strategy). It sounds more professional than saying '마케팅 때문에' (Because of marketing), which can sometimes sound like making an excuse or being too casual. By using ~에 의해서, the speaker emphasizes the strategic connection between the action and the result. Therefore, if you aim to work in a Korean corporate environment or study at a Korean university, becoming comfortable with this phrase is not just an option—it is a necessity for professional communication and comprehension.

One of the most frequent mistakes learners make is overusing ~에 의해서 in casual conversation. Because it translates so neatly to 'by' in English, English speakers tend to use it whenever they would use 'by' in English. However, in Korean, this phrase is quite heavy. If you say '엄마에 의해서 밥을 먹었어요' (I ate rice by my mom), it sounds as if your mother were a force of nature or a formal institution forcing you to eat. In daily life, you should use -가/이 (subject markers) or -에게/한테 (to/from). The natural way to say 'My mom made me eat' would be '엄마가 밥을 차려주셨어요' or '엄마 때문에 밥을 먹었어요.' Remember: ~에 의해서 is for formal attribution, not for everyday interactions with people you know well.

Confusing with -때문에

-때문에 is for reasons (often negative). ~에 의해서 is for the agent or the direct cause in a formal sense.

Incorrect Adjective Form

Learners often say ~에 의해서 명사 when they should say ~에 의한 명사. Use -의한 before a noun.

Using with Active Verbs

It is mostly used with passive or resultative verbs. Using it with a simple active verb like 'I went' is usually incorrect.

Another common error is failing to distinguish between ~에 의해서 and ~으로. While both can indicate a 'means,' ~으로 is used for tools or methods (e.g., 'by bus' = 버스로), whereas ~에 의해서 is used for the underlying cause or the formal agent. For example, 'I came by bus' is '버스로 왔어요,' not '버스에 의해서 왔어요.' The latter would imply the bus somehow had the agency or was the formal reason for your arrival, which is nonsensical. Similarly, 'I wrote it by hand' is '손으로 썼어요.' Using ~에 의해서 here would be a classic case of 'translationese'—translating word-for-word from English without considering Korean idiomatic usage. Always ask yourself: Is this a tool I'm using, or is this the formal cause of the situation?

Lastly, be careful with the word order. In English, the 'by' phrase often comes at the end of the sentence ('The book was written by John'). In Korean, the ~에 의해서 phrase usually comes before the verb, often right after the subject or at the very beginning of the sentence. Putting it in the wrong place can make the sentence feel disjointed. For example, '프로젝트가 완료되었습니다 팀에 의해서' is grammatically broken. It must be '팀에 의해서 프로젝트가 완료되었습니다.' Keeping the agent close to the action it caused helps maintain the logical flow that Korean speakers expect. By avoiding these pitfalls, you will ensure that your use of this formal phrase actually enhances your speech rather than making it sound awkward and unnatural.

Korean has several ways to express causality and agency, and choosing the right one depends on the context and the 'flavor' you want to give the sentence. The most common alternative to ~에 의해서 is ~로 인해(서). While they are often interchangeable, ~로 인해 is specifically used for 'causes' or 'reasons,' often leading to a certain result (usually negative or neutral). For example, '폭우로 인해 길이 막혔습니다' (The road is blocked due to heavy rain). Here, the rain is the cause. ~에 의해서, on the other hand, can also denote a 'basis' or 'authority.' You wouldn't say '법률로 인해 금지됨' as often as '법률에 의해 금지됨,' because the law is the authority/basis, not just a random cause like rain.

~에 의해서 vs. ~로 인해

~에 의해서 is broader (agent, basis, cause). ~로 인해 is strictly causal (reason for a result).

~에 의해서 vs. ~에 따라

~에 따라 means 'according to' or 'following.' Use it when one thing changes in proportion to another (e.g., 'according to the plan').

~에 의해서 vs. ~에게/한테

Use ~에게/한테 for people in active/passive social interactions. Use ~에 의해서 for formal attribution.

Another similar expression is ~으로 말미암아. This is a very literary and somewhat archaic version of 'due to' or 'caused by.' You might find it in old literature, religious texts, or very formal historical essays. It emphasizes a deep-seated cause that led to a significant consequence. For everyday modern formal writing, ~에 의해서 is much more practical. Additionally, for positive causes, ~덕분에 (thanks to) is the best choice. If you say '선생님에 의해서 합격했어요,' it sounds like the teacher physically moved your pen to pass the test. '선생님 덕분에 합격했어요' correctly attributes your success to the teacher's help and guidance. Choosing the right synonym is about matching the emotional tone of the sentence.

Finally, consider the use of ~을/를 통해(서) (through/via). This is used when something is an intermediary or a channel. For example, 'I heard the news through a friend' is '친구를 통해 소식을 들었어요.' While 'by a friend' might work in English, ~에 의해서 would be too heavy here. ~을/를 통해 suggests a flow of information or a medium, whereas ~에 의해서 suggests a definitive cause or agent. Understanding these subtle differences allows you to paint a more precise picture in the mind of your listener. By mastering the spectrum of causal expressions in Korean, you move beyond simple communication and begin to express complex thoughts with the nuance of a native speaker.