~에 의해

The Korean grammatical construction ~에 의해 (or its more complete form ~에 의해서) is a sophisticated postpositional phrase used to indicate the agent of an action in a passive sentence or the cause/reason behind a specific phenomenon. In English, it most closely translates to 'by,' 'due to,' 'through,' or 'as a result of.' While basic Korean often relies on active voice constructions, ~에 의해 allows speakers and writers to shift the focus from the 'doer' to the 'receiver' or the 'result,' which is essential for formal, academic, and journalistic styles of communication. Understanding this phrase is a significant step for learners moving from basic conversational Korean to more professional and literary proficiency levels.

Grammatical Function

It functions as a marker for the logical subject in a passive construction. For example, in the sentence 'The book was written by the author,' the author is the agent marked by ~에 의해.

Causal Relationship

Beyond just passive agents, it indicates that a certain state or event was brought about by a specific cause, often an abstract concept or a natural force.

In everyday spoken Korean, you might not hear ~에 의해 as frequently as you would see it in a newspaper or a textbook. This is because Korean speakers naturally prefer active sentences (e.g., 'The author wrote the book') over passive ones. However, when you are reading a news report about a law being changed by the government, or a scientific paper about changes caused by global warming, ~에 의해 becomes indispensable. It provides a level of objectivity and formality that simple particles like '이/가' or '께서' cannot convey on their own. It effectively distances the speaker from the action, making the statement feel more like a factual observation than a personal narrative.

The phrase is derived from the verb 의하다 (ui-ha-da), which means 'to be due to' or 'to depend on.' By adding the particle 에 (to/at) and the connective suffix ~어/아 (forming 의해), it creates a bridge between the noun and the following verb. It is important to note that while ~에 의해 and ~에 의해서 are interchangeable, the latter is slightly more emphatic and common in formal writing. When using this construction, the following verb is almost always in the passive form (e.g., 만들어지다, 결정되다, 발견되다). This alignment between the agent marker and the passive verb is what creates the formal tone characteristic of Korean high-level discourse.

Furthermore, ~에 의해 is often used to describe laws, rules, or principles. For instance, 'according to the law' can be expressed as 법에 의해. This usage highlights the authority or the source of a particular action or state. It suggests that the outcome was not random but was the direct result of a structured cause or a specific entity's intervention. In literary contexts, it can even be used to personify abstract concepts, such as being 'driven by passion' or 'moved by fate,' adding a layer of poetic depth to the writing. As you progress in your Korean studies, mastering ~에 의해 will allow you to read complex literature and understand news broadcasts with much greater ease.

Formal Usage

Common in news reports, legal documents, and academic essays to maintain an objective tone.

Agent Marking

Identifies the person or thing that performs the action in a passive sentence.

In summary, ~에 의해 is a versatile and essential tool for expressing agency and causality in a formal manner. It bridges the gap between simple sentences and complex, professional Korean. Whether you are describing a scientific process, a historical event, or a legal requirement, this phrase provides the necessary structure to convey your message clearly and authoritatively. By practicing its use with various passive verbs, you will significantly enhance your ability to communicate in diverse and sophisticated contexts.

Using ~에 의해 correctly requires an understanding of sentence structure, specifically how it interacts with passive verbs. The basic formula is [Noun] + 에 의해 + [Passive Verb]. This structure is used to indicate that the noun is the agent or the cause of the action described by the verb. Unlike the active voice, where the subject performs the action, the passive voice focuses on the person or thing affected by the action, and ~에 의해 identifies who or what is responsible for that action. This is particularly useful when the 'doer' is an organization, a natural force, or an abstract concept rather than a specific individual.

Structure 1: Passive Agent

Noun + 에 의해 + Passive Verb (e.g., 발견되다, 만들어지다). Focuses on who performed the action.

Structure 2: Causal Link

Noun + 에 의해 + Resulting State. Focuses on the cause of a situation.

Let's look at a practical example. If you want to say 'The window was broken by the wind,' you would use ~에 의해. In Korean, this becomes 창문이 바람에 의해 깨졌습니다. Here, '창문' (window) is the subject receiving the action, '바람' (wind) is the agent marked by ~에 의해, and '깨졌습니다' (was broken) is the passive verb. Notice how the focus is on the broken window, and the wind is introduced as the external cause. This is much more common in formal writing or news reporting than saying 'The wind broke the window,' which sounds more direct and personal.

Another important aspect of using ~에 의해 is its relationship with the particle ~에게. While both can mark an agent in a passive sentence, ~에게 is typically used for animate agents (people or animals) in spoken or less formal contexts, whereas ~에 의해 is used for both animate and inanimate agents in formal or written contexts. For example, 'I was bitten by a dog' is usually 개에게 물렸어요, but 'The policy was decided by the committee' is 위원회에 의해 결정되었습니다. Choosing ~에 의해 adds a layer of professionalism and precision to your speech or writing.

When dealing with abstract nouns, ~에 의해 is particularly powerful. It can describe being influenced by emotions, driven by curiosity, or constrained by circumstances. For instance, 호기심에 의해 시작된 실험 (an experiment started by curiosity) shows how an abstract concept can be the catalyst for an action. This usage is common in academic writing where the 'agent' is often a theory, a trend, or a statistical finding. It allows for a nuanced description of causality that avoids the simplicity of 'because of' (~때문에), which can sometimes sound too direct or subjective.

Finally, remember that ~에 의해 can be followed by ~ㄴ/은 to modify a noun, as in ~에 의한 [Noun]. This translates to 'Noun caused by...' or 'Noun according to...'. For example, 태풍에 의한 피해 means 'damage caused by the typhoon.' This is a very common way to create complex noun phrases in Korean. By mastering these different patterns—passive agent, causal link, and noun modification—you will be able to construct sophisticated sentences that reflect a high level of Korean linguistic competence.

Noun Modification

Noun A + 에 의한 + Noun B (e.g., 전쟁에 의한 파괴 - destruction caused by war).

Verb Compatibility

Works best with 'hada' verbs that have a 'doeda' (passive) counterpart, such as 발명하다/발명되다.

To truly understand ~에 의해, you need to look at the specific environments where it thrives. This is not a phrase you will typically hear while chatting with friends over coffee or ordering food at a restaurant. Instead, it is the language of the 'public square.' You will hear it in news broadcasts, where anchors report on government actions or natural disasters. You will see it in newspapers, where journalists analyze economic trends or social changes. It is the backbone of academic discourse, used by professors and researchers to explain theories and experimental results. In these contexts, ~에 의해 provides a necessary layer of formality and objectivity.

News & Media

Used to report on official decisions, accidents, and international relations. 'The law was passed by the National Assembly.'

Academic Journals

Used to describe scientific phenomena or historical events. 'The discovery was made by a team of scientists.'

Imagine you are watching a Korean news report about a recent court ruling. The announcer might say, 판결은 증거에 의해 내려졌습니다 (The verdict was reached based on the evidence). Here, ~에 의해 emphasizes that the decision was not arbitrary but was strictly dictated by the evidence. This usage is common in legal settings where every word must be precise. Similarly, in a documentary about history, you might hear, 이 나라는 왕에 의해 통치되었습니다 (This country was ruled by a king). The phrase helps establish a formal, historical tone that suits the subject matter perfectly.

In the business world, ~에 의해 is frequently used in reports, contracts, and official presentations. When a company explains its quarterly results, it might state that 'profits were influenced by the global market situation' (이익은 세계 시장 상황에 의해 영향을 받았습니다). This sounds much more professional than saying 'the market made us lose money.' It frames the situation as a logical consequence of external factors, which is a key aspect of professional communication in Korea. If you are planning to work in a Korean company or study at a Korean university, you will encounter this phrase daily in your reading materials and formal meetings.

Furthermore, you will find ~에 의해 in high-quality literature and essays. Authors use it to create a specific rhythm or to emphasize the weight of destiny or nature. For example, a novelist might write about a character being 'swept away by the waves of time' (세월의 파도에 의해 휩쓸려 갔다). This usage is more poetic and shows the versatility of the phrase beyond just technical or legal contexts. It allows for a sense of grandiosity and inevitability that simple causal markers lack. By paying attention to these different contexts, you will start to feel the 'weight' and 'color' that ~에 의해 brings to a sentence.

Legal Documents

Commonly used to specify the authority under which an action is taken (e.g., 'By the power vested in me...').

Scientific Reports

Used to describe the cause of a reaction or the agent of a biological process.

One of the most common mistakes learners make with ~에 의해 is overusing it in casual conversation. Because many learners translate 'by' directly from English, they might say something like 친구에 의해 선물을 받았어요 (I received a gift by my friend). While grammatically understandable, this sounds incredibly stiff and unnatural to a native speaker. In a casual setting, you should use ~한테 or ~에게 for people, or simply use an active sentence: 친구가 선물을 줬어요 (My friend gave me a gift). Reserve ~에 의해 for formal writing or when you specifically want to sound objective and detached.

Mistake 1: Casual Overuse

Using ~에 의해 in daily speech instead of ~에게 or active verbs. It makes you sound like a textbook.

Mistake 2: Active Verb Mismatch

Pairing ~에 의해 with an active verb. It must almost always be followed by a passive verb (e.g., 되다, 어지다).

Another frequent error is failing to use a passive verb after ~에 의해. For example, saying 선생님에 의해 공부했어요 (I studied by the teacher) is incorrect. If the teacher caused you to study, you should use the causative form (선생님이 공부하게 했어요) or if you studied 'under' the teacher, you'd use 선생님 밑에서 공부했어요. ~에 의해 specifically marks the agent of a passive action. Therefore, the verb must be in its passive form, such as 가르쳐지다 (to be taught), although even that is rare; usually, you'd just say the teacher taught you. This mismatch between the agent marker and the verb type is a hallmark of non-native phrasing.

Confusion between ~에 의해 and ~때문에 is also common. While both can indicate a cause, ~때문에 is much more general and often carries a sense of 'blame' or 'reason' in a personal context. ~에 의해 is more formal and focuses on the mechanism of how something happened. For example, 비 때문에 늦었어요 (I was late because of the rain) is perfect for a personal excuse. However, 홍수에 의해 도로가 유실되었습니다 (The road was washed away by the flood) is the correct formal/journalistic way to describe the event. Using ~에 의해 for personal excuses can sound like you are trying to avoid responsibility by sounding overly clinical.

Lastly, some learners forget the particle 에 and just say 의해. While 의해 can sometimes appear at the start of a clause in very specific literary structures, in 99% of cases, it must follow a noun and the particle 에. Omitting 에 makes the sentence grammatically incomplete and difficult to parse. Always remember the full sequence: Noun + 에 + 의해. Also, be careful not to confuse it with ~을 위해 (for the sake of), which sounds similar but has a completely different meaning. A small slip in the particle can change 'by the people' to 'for the people,' which might drastically alter your intended message.

Confusing with ~을 위해

~을 위해 means 'for' or 'for the sake of,' while ~에 의해 means 'by' or 'due to.'

Particle Omission

Always include '에' before '의해' to maintain grammatical correctness.

Korean has several ways to express agency and causality, and choosing the right one depends on the level of formality and the specific nuance you want to convey. The most common alternative to ~에 의해 is ~에게 or ~한테. These are used primarily for people and animals in spoken Korean. While ~에 의해 is formal and objective, ~에게 is more natural for personal interactions. For example, 'I was praised by the teacher' is 선생님에게 칭찬을 받았어요, not 선생님에 의해 칭찬을 받았어요, which would sound like a line from a formal report about student evaluations.

~에게 / ~한테

Used for animate agents (people/animals) in spoken Korean. More personal and common in daily life.

~로 / ~으로

Used to indicate a tool, method, or cause. 'He died of a disease' (병으로 죽었다) vs. 'He was killed by a disease' (병에 의해 죽었다 - more formal).

Another similar expression is ~로 말미암아. This is a very formal, somewhat archaic, and literary way to say 'due to' or 'caused by.' It is often used to describe the root cause of a significant event, usually a negative one. For instance, 사소한 오해로 말미암아 큰 싸움이 일어났다 (A big fight broke out due to a small misunderstanding). Compared to ~에 의해, ~로 말미암아 feels more dramatic and is rarely used outside of literature or high-level historical accounts. If ~에 의해 is the language of the news, ~로 말미암아 is the language of a historical novel.

~에 따라서 (according to) is another phrase that sometimes overlaps with ~에 의해. While ~에 의해 focuses on the agent or cause, ~에 따라서 focuses on following a standard, rule, or changing situation. For example, 'Decided by the rules' is 규칙에 의해 결정되었다, but 'Changes according to the rules' is 규칙에 따라 변한다. Understanding this distinction is crucial for academic writing where you need to differentiate between the entity that causes an action and the standard that guides it.

Lastly, ~을/를 통해서 (through/via) can be used as an alternative when the 'agent' is more of a medium or a channel. For example, 'I heard the news through a friend' is 친구를 통해 소식을 들었어요. If you said 친구에 의해 소식이 전달되었어요 (The news was delivered by a friend), it sounds like a formal report on information dissemination. ~을 통해 is much more versatile and common in both spoken and written Korean for describing how something was achieved or how information was received. Choosing between these depends on whether you view the noun as the direct agent (~에 의해) or just the medium (~를 통해).

~을/를 통해

Indicates a medium or channel. Very common in both formal and informal contexts.

~에 따라

Indicates a standard or a proportional change. 'According to...'