Grammar Rule in 30 Seconds
Parallel structure means using the same grammatical form for all items in a list to ensure clarity and professional rhythm.
- Match parts of speech: If the first item is a noun, make them all nouns. Example: 'Apples, pears, and grapes.'
- Match verb forms: Don't mix gerunds and infinitives. Example: 'I like hiking, swimming, and running.'
- Match clause types: Keep the same voice (active/passive) throughout. Example: 'He opened the door, entered the room, and sat down.'
Overview
and, or, but など）で結ばれる要素が、すべて「同じ文法的なカテゴリー」に属していなければならないという点にあります。これを「Syntactic Equivalence（統語的等価性）」と呼びます。My hobbies are reading, to watch movies, and travel. とすると、並列構造が崩壊しています。reading（動名詞）、to watch（不定詞）、travel（動詞の原形/名詞）が混ざっているため、ネイティブスピーカーの耳には非常に不協和音として響きます。これを正すには、My hobbies are reading, watching movies, and traveling. と、すべてを動名詞（-ing形）で統一する必要があります。このように、英語では「意味が通じるか」だけでなく「形が揃っているか」が極めて重視されるのです。A, B, and C です（あるいは A, B, or C など）。ここで重要なのは、A, B, C が文法的に等価であることです。単に品詞を合わせるだけでなく、その品詞の「形態」まで一致させることが求められます。and の前に置くコンマは「Oxford Comma（オックスフォード・コンマ）」または「Serial Comma」と呼ばれます。これは任意とされることもありますが、学術的・専門的な文書（C1レベルが求められる場面）では、意味の混同を避けるために常に使用することが強く推奨されます。Noun, Noun, and Noun | She values honesty, integrity, and diligence. | すべて抽象名詞で統一されています。 |Adj, Adj, and Adj | The report was clear, concise, and persuasive. | すべて叙述的形容詞で統一されています。 |Verb, Verb, and Verb | We must plan, execute, and evaluate the project. | 助動詞 must に続く原形が並んでいます。 |Gerund, Gerund, and Gerund | He enjoys hiking, swimming, and cycling. | -ing 形の動名詞が並列されています。 |to Verb, to Verb, and to Verb | To survive, to thrive, and to lead are our goals. | to 不定詞が並びます。2つ目以降の to は省略可能です。 |Adv, Adv, and Adv | Please speak slowly, clearly, and loudly. | 動詞 speak を修飾する副詞が並んでいます。 |Participle, Participle, and Participle | The task was planned, organized, and completed. | 受動態を構成する過去分詞が並んでいます。 |- ビジネスプレゼンテーションやスピーチ:
Our product is fast, reliable, and affordable. というフレーズは、形容詞を並列させることで、製品の利点を力強く印象づけます。有名なアブラハム・リンカーンの of the people, by the people, for the people も、前置詞句の完璧な並列構造によるものです。- 履歴書（Resume/CV）の職務経歴:
Managed a team, developed a new strategy, and increased sales by 20%. のように、過去形動詞で統一することで、一貫した実績として読み手に伝わります。ここに Management of a team（名詞句）が混ざると、途端に素人っぽさが出てしまいます。- 学術論文やレポート:
The study aims to identify the cause, to analyze the data, and to propose a solution. のように不定詞を並べることで、研究の目的が多角的ながらも一つの方向に向かっていることを示せます。- 指示書やマニュアル:
First, download the app. Second, create an account. Third, verify your email. のように命令文（動詞の原形）で統一することで、ユーザーは何をすべきか迷わずに済みます。- 1品詞の混在 (Mixing Parts of Speech):
- 誤:
I like traveling, photography, and to cook. - 正:
I like traveling, taking photos, and cooking. - 原因: 日本語では「旅行（名詞）、写真（名詞）、料理すること（動詞句）」を「〜と」で繋げても不自然ではありません。しかし英語では、
traveling（動名詞）で始めたなら、最後まで動名詞で通す必要があります。photographyは名詞なので、動名詞のtaking photosに変えることでバランスが整います。
- 1不定詞と動名詞の混同:
- 誤:
The manager asked us to work hard and being punctual. - 正:
The manager asked us to work hard and to be punctual. - 原因:
ask someone to...という構造を忘れて、途中でbeingと動名詞にしてしまうミスです。最初のto workに形を合わせる必要があります。
- 1節（Clause）と句（Phrase）の混在:
- 誤:
The teacher told us that we should study hard and to submit our homework on time. - 正:
The teacher told us that we should study hard and that we should submit our homework on time. - 原因: 前半を
that節で始め、後半を不定詞句にしてしまうパターンです。これは日本語の「〜ということと、〜するようにと言った」という混在した表現に引きずられている可能性が高いです。上級者としては、that節ならthat節で揃える、あるいは両方を不定詞にするという選択が求められます。
He is not only talented but also has a lot of money. | He is not only talented but also wealthy. (Adj + Adj) |You can either stay here or going home. | You can either stay here or go home. (Verb + Verb) |Neither the weather nor how the traffic was helped. | Neither the weather nor the traffic helped. (Noun + Noun) |Both for health and to save money, I walk. | Both for health and for economy, I walk. (Prep Phrase + Prep Phrase) |not only の後ろが形容詞なら、but also の後ろも形容詞にする必要があります。日本語では「才能があるだけでなく、お金も持っている」と、形容詞句と動詞句を混ぜても自然ですが、英語では「形容詞と形容詞」または「節と節」のように、鏡合わせのような対称性が求められます。to や the は省略してもいいですか？to explore, to discover, and to innovate は to explore, discover, and innovate としても並列構造は維持されます。ただし、強調したい場合や、各項目を独立させて際立たせたい場合は、あえて繰り返す方が効果的です。C1レベルでは、文脈に応じて「リズム」をコントロールするために使い分けましょう。I like dogs, cats, and long walks on the beach. の方が、I like long walks on the beach, dogs, and cats. よりもリズムが良く、美しく聞こえます。and や or の前後を見直し、「形は揃っているか？」「鏡合わせになっているか？」をチェックする習慣をつけてください。このひと手間が、あなたの英語の信頼性を飛躍的に高めるはずです。頑張りましょう（頑張りましょう）！Matching Grammatical Forms in Lists
| Category | Parallel Form 1 | Parallel Form 2 | Parallel Form 3 |
|---|---|---|---|
|
Nouns
|
The teacher
|
the student
|
the parent
|
|
Adjectives
|
Smart
|
funny
|
kind
|
|
Gerunds
|
Running
|
jumping
|
swimming
|
|
Infinitives
|
To see
|
to hear
|
to feel
|
|
Adverbs
|
Quickly
|
quietly
|
carefully
|
|
Prep. Phrases
|
In the car
|
on the bus
|
at the station
|
|
Clauses
|
That he came
|
that he saw
|
that he conquered
|
Meanings
Parallel structure (also called parallelism) is the repetition of a chosen grammatical form within a sentence. By making each compared item or idea in your sentence follow the same grammatical pattern, you create a cohesive and balanced flow.
Word-Level Parallelism
Matching individual words like nouns, adjectives, or adverbs in a simple list.
“The workshop was informative, engaging, and practical.”
“We need to act quickly, decisively, and effectively.”
Phrase-Level Parallelism
Matching phrases such as gerund phrases (-ing), infinitive phrases (to...), or prepositional phrases.
“He enjoys reading historical novels, watching indie films, and playing classical guitar.”
“To succeed is to work hard, to stay focused, and to remain humble.”
Clause-Level Parallelism
Matching entire clauses, ensuring they all use the same voice (active/passive) or tense structure.
“The coach told the players that they should get plenty of sleep, that they should eat a healthy meal, and that they should arrive early.”
“What we say is what we do, and what we do is who we are.”
Reference Table
| 文法タイプ | 非並列の例（誤り） | 並列の例（正しい） | 並列である理由 |
|---|---|---|---|
|
名詞
|
I enjoy `reading`, `to run`, and `music`.
|
I enjoy `reading`, `running`, and `music`.
|
全て動名詞または名詞で、一貫性が保たれています。
|
|
形容詞
|
She is `smart`, `kindly`, and `talented`.
|
She is `smart`, `kind`, and `talented`.
|
全て形容詞です。
|
|
動詞（原形）
|
He likes `to swim`, `dance`, and `singing`.
|
He likes `to swim`, `to dance`, and `to sing`.
|
全て不定詞（to不定詞）です。
|
|
副詞
|
They worked `quickly`, `efficient`, and `diligently`.
|
They worked `quickly`, `efficiently`, and `diligently`.
|
全て副詞です。
|
|
動名詞
|
`Running`, `to eat`, and `sleeping` are fun.
|
`Running`, `eating`, and `sleeping` are fun.
|
全て動名詞です。
|
|
過去分詞
|
The report was `written`, `reviewed`, and `publishing`.
|
The report was `written`, `reviewed`, and `published`.
|
全て過去分詞です。
|
フォーマル度スペクトル
The candidate is diligent, punctual, and highly professional. (Professional evaluation)
She is hardworking, on time, and professional. (Professional evaluation)
She's a hard worker, always on time, and super pro. (Professional evaluation)
She's a beast, always there, and totally legit. (Professional evaluation)
リストにおける並列構造：単語の一致
単語の種類
- 名詞 books, movies, podcasts
- 形容詞 fast, reliable, intuitive
- 副詞 quickly, clearly, confidently
- 動詞（同形） study, practice, reflect
- 動名詞 running, swimming, cycling
利点
- 明瞭さ Easy to understand
- 読みやすさ Smooth flow
- インパクト Stronger message
- プロフェッショナルさ Polished writing
よくある間違い
- 形式の混在 reading, to run, and music
- 動詞の不一致 sing, dance, and painted
並列リスト vs. 非並列リスト
リストの並列構造チェック
「and」、「or」、「but」で繋がれた2つ以上の項目からなるリストがありますか？
最初の項目の文法形式（名詞、形容詞、動詞、動名詞など）を特定してください。
リスト内の他の全ての項目は、最初の項目と「全く同じ」文法形式を共有していますか？
品詞別並列構造
名詞
- • `books`, `films`, `games`
- • `experience`, `skills`, `achievements`
形容詞
- • `bright`, `colorful`, `engaging`
- • `smart`, `kind`, `ambitious`
動詞（原形）
- • `run`, `jump`, `swim`
- • `plan`, `execute`, `evaluate`
動名詞（-ing）
- • `drawing`, `painting`, `sculpting`
- • `researching`, `writing`, `presenting`
副詞
- • `quickly`, `quietly`, `calmly`
- • `clearly`, `concisely`, `confidently`
レベル別の例文
I like cats, dogs, and birds.
I like cats, dogs, and birds.
She is tall and thin.
She is tall and thin.
He can run and jump.
He can run and jump.
Red, blue, and green are colors.
Red, blue, and green are colors.
I enjoy swimming and hiking.
I enjoy swimming and hiking.
He wants to eat and to sleep.
He wants to eat and to sleep.
The car is fast, quiet, and expensive.
The car is fast, quiet, and expensive.
She works in an office and at a school.
She works in an office and at a school.
The film was not only long but also boring.
The film was not only long but also boring.
We decided to stay home, order pizza, and watch a movie.
We decided to stay home, order pizza, and watch a movie.
She is interested in learning French and visiting Paris.
She is interested in learning French and visiting Paris.
You can either pay by cash or use a credit card.
You can either pay by cash or use a credit card.
The professor expected the students to arrive on time, to have read the book, and to be ready for the quiz.
The professor expected the students to arrive on time, to have read the book, and to be ready for the quiz.
Success depends on how hard you work and how well you network.
Success depends on how hard you work and how well you network.
The new policy is neither efficient nor cost-effective.
The new policy is neither efficient nor cost-effective.
He was praised for his honesty, his bravery, and his kindness.
He was praised for his honesty, his bravery, and his kindness.
The candidate's goals are to improve the economy, to reform the healthcare system, and to protect the environment.
The candidate's goals are to improve the economy, to reform the healthcare system, and to protect the environment.
It is a story about a man who loses everything, who struggles to survive, and who eventually finds redemption.
It is a story about a man who loses everything, who struggles to survive, and who eventually finds redemption.
The report was criticized for being biased, for lacking evidence, and for containing numerous errors.
The report was criticized for being biased, for lacking evidence, and for containing numerous errors.
Whether we win the game or whether we lose the game, we must play with honor.
Whether we win the game or whether we lose the game, we must play with honor.
To think clearly is a virtue; to speak eloquently is a gift; to act justly is a duty.
To think clearly is a virtue; to speak eloquently is a gift; to act justly is a duty.
The committee noted that the proposal was technically sound, that it was financially viable, but that it was ethically questionable.
The committee noted that the proposal was technically sound, that it was financially viable, but that it was ethically questionable.
We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets.
We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets.
The more we learn about the universe, the more we realize how little we actually know.
The more we learn about the universe, the more we realize how little we actually know.
間違えやすい
Learners often think they must repeat every word to be parallel, but ellipsis allows you to remove shared words.
This is a literary device where one word applies to two others in different senses (e.g., 'He took his hat and his leave').
Comparing a thing to a person or a quality to an object.
よくある間違い
I like apples and to swim.
I like apples and swimming.
He is tall and has strength.
He is tall and strong.
She likes cats, dogs, and play.
She likes cats, dogs, and playing.
I am from Spain and student.
I am from Spain and I am a student.
I enjoy to read and writing.
I enjoy reading and writing.
The room was dark, cold, and it smelled bad.
The room was dark, cold, and smelly.
He can sing, dance, and he plays guitar.
He can sing, dance, and play guitar.
It is better to stay than leaving.
It is better to stay than to leave.
She is not only smart but also she is kind.
She is not only smart but also kind.
The job involves typing, filing, and to answer phones.
The job involves typing, filing, and answering phones.
The report was researched well, written clearly, and the presentation was good.
The report was researched well, written clearly, and presented effectively.
The goal is to increase sales, reduce costs, and the improvement of quality.
The goal is to increase sales, reduce costs, and improve quality.
He was told to either sign the contract or that he should leave.
He was told either to sign the contract or to leave.
The study focused on the effects of stress, how people sleep, and diet.
The study focused on the effects of stress, sleep patterns, and diet.
文型パターン
I enjoy ___, ___, and ___.
The project was not only ___, but also ___.
To ___, to ___, and to ___ are my main goals.
Whether you ___, or whether you ___, you must ___.
Real World Usage
Specializing in digital marketing, content creation, and brand strategy.
Served with roasted potatoes, steamed vegetables, and garlic bread.
I am responsible for hiring staff, training new employees, and managing budgets.
Day 1: Arrive in Paris. Day 2: Visit the Louvre. Day 3: Depart for Lyon.
The tenant shall maintain the property, pay the rent, and respect the neighbors.
I love long walks, good wine, and great conversation.
最初にパターンを見つけよう
異なる文法形式を混ぜないで
声に出してリズムを確認
明瞭さは世界共通の価値
インパクトのために使おう
Smart Tips
Check the ending of each word. If the first two end in -ly, the third one probably should too.
Start every bullet point with a past-tense action verb.
Place the 'not only' immediately before the word you are comparing.
Repeat the 'anchor' word (like 'that' or 'to') to help the reader stay on track.
発音
List Intonation
When speaking a parallel list, use a rising intonation for each item except the last one, which should have a falling intonation.
The 1-2-3 Rise-Fall
I like hiking ↗, swimming ↗, and running ↘.
Indicates that the list is finished.
暗記しよう
記憶術
Think of 'The Mirror Rule': If you look at the first item in a list, every other item should see its own reflection in the same grammatical shape.
視覚的連想
Imagine a set of train tracks. For the train to move smoothly, both tracks must be perfectly parallel and made of the same material. If one rail turns into wood while the other is steel, the train crashes.
Rhyme
If the first is an -ing, let the others sing the same thing!
Story
A perfectionist architect was building a house. He insisted that if the first window was round, every window must be round. If the first door was oak, every door must be oak. His house was the most beautiful in the city because of its perfect symmetry.
Word Web
チャレンジ
Look at your last three sent emails. Find one list and check if it follows parallel structure. If not, rewrite it!
文化メモ
Parallelism is highly valued in 'elevator pitches' and resumes. It signals a logical, organized mind.
Strict adherence to parallelism is expected in essays. Breaking it is often seen as a sign of poor education.
Parallelism is used in 'Mission Statements' to create a memorable, punchy brand voice.
From the Greek 'parallelos' (beside each other). It has been a core principle of rhetoric since Ancient Greece.
会話のきっかけ
What are three things you love doing on the weekend?
If you were the president, what three things would you change first?
Describe your ideal job in three adjectives.
What are the qualities of a great leader?
日記のテーマ
よくある間違い
Test Yourself
Choose the correct sentence:
reading、running、music）が動名詞または名詞であり、一貫した文法形式を保っています。Find and fix the mistake:
The candidate was `intelligent`, `experienced`, and `a hard worker`.
intelligent、experienced）と名詞句（a hard worker）を混ぜています。Hard-workingは形容詞であり、並列構造を作り出します。My goals for this year are `learning a new skill`, `traveling to a new country`, and ___ `more regularly`.
learning、traveling）なので、3番目の項目も並列構造を保つために動名詞である必要があります。Arrange the words in the correct order:
All words placed
Click words above to build the sentence
Score: /4
練習問題
8 exercisesFind and fix the mistake:
He likes to swim, hiking, and to run.
Select the correct sentence:
She is not only a great singer but also ___.
The study was expensive, time-consuming, and it was difficult.
To succeed is to work hard and staying focused.
Identify the non-parallel list:
I want to lose weight, ___.
1. Noun, 2. Gerund, 3. Clause
Score: /8
Practice Bank
11 exercisesThe film was `dark`, `gritty`, and sometimes quite ___.
Which sentence is correct?
My hobbies include `hiking`, `playing guitar`, and `to cook`.
Translate into English: 'Él es inteligente, ambicioso y trabajador.'
Arrange these words into a sentence:
開始フレーズと、文法的に並列なリストを一致させてください。
She handled the crisis `calmly`, `decisively`, and ___.
The restaurant serves `fresh` seafood, `delicious` pasta, and `their desserts are amazing`.
Which of these sentences is grammatically correct?
文の始まりと、正しい並列の続きを一致させてください。
Translate into English: 'Ella es dedicada, creativa y confiable.'
Score: /11
よくある質問 (8)
No, you can say 'to eat, to sleep, and to dream' OR 'to eat, sleep, and dream.' Just don't mix them like 'to eat, sleep, and to dream.'
Technically yes, because gerunds function as nouns (e.g., 'I like pizza and swimming'). However, for stylistic C1 writing, it is often better to keep them identical.
Yes! If your first bullet point starts with a verb, all of them should start with a verb in the same tense.
It is when you attempt to create a list but use different grammatical forms, like 'He is smart and a hard worker.'
Absolutely. Whatever follows 'either' must match whatever follows 'or.' For example: 'either at home or at work.'
It helps the listener follow your logic. If your structure is messy, the listener has to work harder to understand you.
Usually no. If you are listing actions in the past, keep them all in the past: 'He came, he saw, he conquered.'
Yes, the rules of parallelism are universal across all standard dialects of English.
Scaffolded Practice
1
2
3
4
Mastery Progress
Needs Practice
Improving
Strong
Mastered
In Other Languages
Paralelismo
English uses gerunds for 'enjoying' activities; Spanish uses infinitives.
Parallélisme
French repeats prepositions more frequently than English.
Parallelismus
German requires case matching across the list.
並列構造 (Heiretsu kōzō)
Japanese uses specific grammatical markers (particles) to signal parallelism.
التوازي (al-tawāzī)
Arabic often repeats the conjunction 'and' between every item.
排比 (Páibǐ)
Chinese parallelism often focuses on matching the number of syllables.
Learning Path
Prerequisites
関連動画
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