C2 Relative Clauses 11 min read Difícil

Orações Relativas Reduzidas: Usando Particípios (Pós-nominal)

Domine as orações reduzidas para soar preciso e sofisticado: active -ing para quem faz e passive -ed para quem recebe.

Grammar Rule in 30 Seconds

Trim your sentences by removing 'who is' or 'which was' to create sleek, professional participle phrases.

  • Drop the relative pronoun and 'be' verb: 'The man (who is) sitting' becomes 'The man sitting'.
  • Use -ing for active actions: 'The girl winning the race' (The girl who is winning).
  • Use -ed for passive states: 'The car parked outside' (The car which was parked).
Noun + [<s>Relative Pronoun + Be</s>] + Participle (-ing/-ed)

Overview

### Overview
As orações relativas reduzidas, especificamente aquelas que utilizam particípios em posição pós-nominal, são um mecanismo linguístico sofisticado para alcançar concisão e fluidez no inglês. Este nível C2 permite condensar informações de uma oração relativa completa (who is studying, which was written) em uma frase participial mais compacta (studying, written). Em português, a estrutura equivalente seria a oração reduzida de particípio ou de gerúndio, mas o inglês utiliza esse recurso com uma frequência muito maior, impulsionado pelo princípio da economia linguística.
Para nós, brasileiros, acostumados com orações relativas introduzidas por 'que' ou 'o qual', o uso de orações reduzidas pode parecer um pouco 'seco' no início, mas é exatamente essa densidade que confere o tom de proficiência avançada. Ao eliminar elementos redundantes — tipicamente o pronome relativo e o verbo to be — você cria sentenças mais elegantes, formais e impactantes. Dominar essa construção eleva seu inglês para um patamar de controle estilístico que espelha a intuição de um falante nativo.
É a diferença entre dizer algo de forma correta, mas prolixa, e dizer de forma precisa e profissional. No ambiente corporativo, em reuniões de negócios ou até em e-mails formais, essa habilidade é o que distingue um falante fluente de um falante de nível C2. Não se trata apenas de gramática, mas de como a informação é 'empacotada' para ser mais eficiente.
### How This Grammar Works
O funcionamento central da redução de uma oração relativa em uma frase participial envolve um processo de exclusão e transformação sintática. Em português, temos a oração subordinada adjetiva, que pode ser restritiva ou explicativa. No inglês, a redução ocorre principalmente em orações relativas restritivas onde o pronome relativo (who, which, that) atua como o sujeito da oração.
O princípio é que a frase participial herda a função modificadora da oração original, descrevendo o substantivo de maneira mais econômica. Existem dois cenários principais, ditados pela voz da oração original.
Primeiro, para orações na voz ativa que incluem o verbo to be seguido de um particípio presente (gerúndio), deletamos o pronome relativo e o verbo to be. O particípio presente (-ing) passa a modificar o substantivo diretamente. Por exemplo: The scientist who is developing the new algorithm torna-se The scientist developing the new algorithm.
Em português, diríamos 'O cientista que está desenvolvendo...', e a redução seria 'O cientista desenvolvendo...'. Note que em português o uso do gerúndio como adjetivo é possível, mas o inglês o faz com uma naturalidade muito maior.
Segundo, para a voz passiva, removemos o pronome relativo e o verbo to be, restando apenas o particípio passado (-ed ou irregular). O particípio passado atua como um adjetivo. Exemplo: The data which was collected torna-se The data collected.
Em português, a equivalência é direta: 'Os dados que foram coletados' vira 'Os dados coletados'. A diferença é que, no inglês, essa estrutura é obrigatória em contextos formais para evitar redundância, enquanto em português, às vezes, preferimos manter o 'que' para evitar ambiguidades. A regra de ouro é: se o substantivo realiza a ação, usamos verb-ing.
Se o substantivo sofre a ação, usamos o particípio passado. O sujeito implícito da frase participial é sempre o substantivo que ela modifica, garantindo a coesão gramatical.
### Formation Pattern
A formação segue padrões sistemáticos baseados na voz da oração original. Veja as tabelas abaixo para comparar a estrutura completa com a reduzida:
| Estrutura Completa (Relativa) | Estrutura Reduzida (Particípio) |
|---|---|
| The student who is studying hard | The student studying hard |
| The report which was written by him | The report written by him |
| The people who are waiting outside | The people waiting outside |
| The rules that were established here | The rules established here |
Padrão 1: Voz Ativa (Present Participle)
  • Oração: NOUN + RELATIVE PRONOUN + BE + VERB-ing
  • Redução: NOUN + VERB-ing
  • Exemplo: The delegates who are attending the conference -> The delegates attending the conference.
Padrão 2: Voz Passiva (Past Participle)
  • Oração: NOUN + RELATIVE PRONOUN + BE + VERB-ed
  • Redução: NOUN + VERB-ed
  • Exemplo: The theories that were developed in the 19th century -> The theories developed in the 19th century.
### When To Use It
Você deve usar essas estruturas quando quiser aumentar a densidade de informação. Em contextos acadêmicos, relatórios técnicos ou e-mails de trabalho, a concisão é vista como um sinal de inteligência e clareza. Por exemplo, ao redigir um documento no trabalho, em vez de escrever The project which is managed by the CEO, prefira The project managed by the CEO.
É mais direto e profissional.
Além disso, em contextos de notícias ou apresentações, o uso dessas formas ajuda a manter o ritmo do discurso. Imagine que você está dando instruções em um tutorial: The button located on the side controls the volume. É muito mais natural do que The button that is located on the side....
A economia de palavras não é apenas uma questão de espaço, mas de evitar o ruído desnecessário na comunicação. Em situações de redes sociais ou conversas informais, você pode usar orações completas, mas em contextos onde a autoridade e a precisão são necessárias, as orações reduzidas são indispensáveis.
### Common Mistakes
  1. 1Dangling Participles (Particípios soltos): O erro mais comum é quando o particípio não modifica o sujeito correto. Exemplo: Walking to the office, the rain started. (Isso implica que a chuva estava andando para o escritório). O falante de português comete esse erro porque, no nosso idioma, às vezes somos mais flexíveis com a ordem, mas no inglês, o particípio *deve* estar colado ao substantivo que ele modifica.
  1. 1Confusão entre -ing e -ed: Muitos brasileiros invertem a voz. Eles dizem The book reading by me (O livro lendo por mim) em vez de The book read by me (O livro lido por mim). Isso ocorre porque, em português, usamos 'lendo' em contextos que podem confundir o aluno sobre quem é o agente da ação.
  1. 1Reduzir orações que não têm o pronome como sujeito: O aluno tenta reduzir The man who I saw yesterday para The man seeing yesterday, o que está errado, pois man não é o sujeito de saw. O pronome relativo precisa ser o sujeito da oração relativa para que a redução ocorra.
### Contrast With Similar Patterns
| Estrutura | Comparação com Português |
|---|---|
| Reduced Relative Clause | Oração reduzida de particípio/gerúndio (ex: 'O livro lido', 'O homem correndo') |
| Full Relative Clause | Oração subordinada adjetiva explicativa/restritiva ('O livro que foi lido') |
A principal diferença é que, no inglês, a redução é quase uma regra de estilo para evitar repetições de 'that' ou 'which', enquanto em português a oração reduzida é uma opção estilística, mas não tão frequente para evitar a prolixidade quanto no inglês.
### Quick FAQ
  1. 1Posso reduzir qualquer oração relativa? Não. Apenas aquelas onde o pronome relativo é o sujeito da oração. Se o pronome for objeto, a redução não funciona da mesma forma.
  1. 1O uso de 'being' é permitido? Sim, em casos de voz passiva contínua, como The house being built, mas é mais formal e menos comum.
  1. 1Isso muda o significado? Não, o significado permanece o mesmo, mas a ênfase e o registro mudam, tornando a frase mais formal e concisa.

Reduction Patterns by Voice

Original Clause Type Relative Clause Example Reduced Form Participle Used
Active (Continuous)
The man who is working
The man working
Present (-ing)
Active (Simple)
The man who works
The man working
Present (-ing)
Passive (Simple)
The car which was stolen
The car stolen
Past (-ed/V3)
Passive (Continuous)
The car which is being fixed
The car being fixed
Being + Past Participle
Perfect (Active)
The man who has finished
The man having finished
Perfect Participle

Meanings

A reduced relative clause is a way of shortening a defining relative clause by removing the relative pronoun (who, which, that) and the auxiliary verb 'be', leaving only the participle phrase to modify the noun.

1

Active Reduction

Using the present participle (-ing) to replace an active relative clause, regardless of the original tense.

“People living in cities often face higher costs.”

“Anyone wanting a refund should speak to the manager.”

2

Passive Reduction

Using the past participle (-ed/V3) to replace a passive relative clause.

“The bridge built in 1920 is still standing.”

“Items purchased on sale cannot be returned.”

3

Progressive Passive Reduction

Using 'being' + past participle to indicate an action currently in progress in a passive sense.

“The house being renovated belongs to my uncle.”

“The issues being discussed are quite complex.”

Reference Table

Reference table for Orações Relativas Reduzidas: Usando Particípios (Pós-nominal)
Tipo de Oração Original Exemplo Completo Forma Reduzida Quando Usar
Voz Ativa
The man `who is running`
The man `running`
O substantivo *faz* a ação
Voz Passiva
The car `which was damaged`
The car `damaged`
O substantivo *recebe* a ação
Ativa (Sem 'be')
The people `who live` next door
The people `living` next door
Verbos de ação direta
Passiva (Com 'be' implícito)
The instructions `that are given`
The instructions `given`
Comum em contextos formais
Descrição Concisa
A student `who is working`
A student `working`
Para encurtar descrições
Declarações Informativas
Information `which is stored`
Information `stored`
Para detalhes factuais e breves

Espectro de formalidade

Formal
The individual spearheading the initiative possesses remarkable talent.

The individual spearheading the initiative possesses remarkable talent. (Professional evaluation)

Neutro
The person leading the project is very talented.

The person leading the project is very talented. (Professional evaluation)

Informal
The guy running the show is great.

The guy running the show is great. (Professional evaluation)

Gíria
The one killing it on the project is a legend.

The one killing it on the project is a legend. (Professional evaluation)

Orações Relativas Reduzidas: Particípios

Oração Relativa Reduzida

Voz Ativa

  • Verbo + -ing `The student studying...`
  • Substantivo faz a ação Descrição ativa concisa

Voz Passiva

  • Verbo + -ed / irregular `The book written...`
  • Substantivo recebe a ação Descrição passiva concisa

Oração Original

  • Pronome Relativo `who, which, that`
  • Verbo 'to be' `is, are, was, were`

Oração Completa vs. Reduzida

Oração Relativa Completa
The person `who is waiting` Mais explícito, um pouco mais longo
The report `that was published` Pronome e verbo claros
She needs the file `which is saved` Estrutura padrão de oração
Oração Relativa Reduzida
The person `waiting` Mais conciso e sofisticado
The report `published` Elimina pronome e 'be'
She needs the file `saved` Descrição direta por particípio

Quando Reduzir uma Oração Relativa

1

O pronome relativo (`who`, `which`, `that`) é o sujeito da oração?

YES
Vá para o próximo passo.
NO
Não pode reduzir.
2

O pronome é seguido de `to be` OU um verbo de ação?

YES
Vá para o próximo passo.
NO
Não pode reduzir (ex: 'who she saw').
3

Se houver `to be`, o verbo principal é ativo ou passivo?

YES
Ativo: Remova pronome + `be`, use `Verb-ing`. Passivo: Remova pronome + `be`, use `Verb-ed`.
NO
4

Se houver apenas verbo de ação (sem `be`):

YES
Remova o pronome, use `Verb-ing`.
NO

Formas de Particípio para Redução

🏃

Particípio Presente (-ing)

  • singing (who is singing)
  • working (that is working)
  • running (who is running)
  • causing (that is causing)
📦

Particípio Passado (-ed / irregular)

  • written (which was written)
  • damaged (that was damaged)
  • chosen (who was chosen)
  • spoken (which was spoken)

Exemplos por nível

1

The girl sitting there is my friend.

The girl who is sitting there is my friend.

2

I like the cake made by Mom.

I like the cake which was made by Mom.

3

Look at the dog running!

Look at the dog that is running!

4

The book on the table is mine.

The book which is on the table is mine.

1

The man wearing the red hat is a doctor.

The man who is wearing the red hat is a doctor.

2

The letters sent yesterday arrived today.

The letters which were sent yesterday arrived today.

3

I live in a house built in 1990.

I live in a house which was built in 1990.

4

The students studying hard got good grades.

The students who were studying hard got good grades.

1

Anyone wanting to join the club should sign here.

Anyone who wants to join the club should sign here.

2

The products sold in this shop are expensive.

The products which are sold in this shop are expensive.

3

The woman talking to the teacher is my mother.

The woman who is talking to the teacher is my mother.

4

The car damaged in the accident was a Ford.

The car which was damaged in the accident was a Ford.

1

The candidates applying for the job must be bilingual.

The candidates who are applying for the job must be bilingual.

2

The ideas discussed during the meeting were innovative.

The ideas which were discussed during the meeting were innovative.

3

The law, passed last year, has caused much controversy.

The law, which was passed last year, has caused much controversy.

4

None of the people invited to the party showed up.

None of the people who were invited to the party showed up.

1

The chemicals found in this liquid are highly toxic.

The chemicals which are found in this liquid are highly toxic.

2

The methodology employed in this study is quite rigorous.

The methodology which was employed in this study is quite rigorous.

3

The protesters, fearing arrest, dispersed quickly.

The protesters, who were fearing arrest, dispersed quickly.

4

The house, being built on a cliff, has a great view.

The house, which is being built on a cliff, has a great view.

1

The paradigm shift occurring in the industry is unprecedented.

The paradigm shift which is occurring in the industry is unprecedented.

2

The artifacts, unearthed during the 1920s, are now on display.

The artifacts, which were unearthed during the 1920s, are now on display.

3

The legislation, having been amended several times, was finally passed.

The legislation, which had been amended several times, was finally passed.

4

The suspect, seen fleeing the scene, was later apprehended.

The suspect, who was seen fleeing the scene, was later apprehended.

Fácil de confundir

Reduced Relative Clauses: Using Participles (Post-nominal) vs Adverbial Participle Clauses

They look the same (Verb-ing at the start or middle).

Reduced Relative Clauses: Using Participles (Post-nominal) vs Gerunds

Both end in -ing.

Erros comuns

The man is sitting there is my dad.

The man sitting there is my dad.

You cannot have two main verbs ('is sitting' and 'is') without a connector. Use the reduced form.

The car made in Japan it is fast.

The car made in Japan is fast.

Don't add an extra 'it'. The reduced clause is just a description of the subject.

The people who waiting for the bus are cold.

The people waiting for the bus are cold.

If you keep 'who', you must keep 'are'. If you drop 'are', you must drop 'who'.

The problem solving by the team was difficult.

The problem solved by the team was difficult.

The problem didn't solve anything; it was solved. Use the passive past participle.

Padrões de frases

The ___ ___ing ___ is ___.

Any ___ ___ed by ___ must ___.

Real World Usage

Job Interviews very common

I have several years of experience working with international clients.

Texting common

See that guy wearing the weird shirt?

Academic Essays constant

The results obtained from the survey suggest a trend.

News Headlines constant

Local hero honored for bravery.

Product Manuals very common

Batteries included in the box are not rechargeable.

Social Media Captions common

Me trying to finish this project.

💡

Pense em Ativa vs. Passiva

Antes de reduzir, verifique se o substantivo executa ou recebe a ação para escolher o particípio certo:
The company hiring new staff is expanding rapidly.
⚠️

Cuidado com o Particípio 'Pendente'

Garanta que o substantivo modificado esteja logo ao lado do particípio para não criar frases confusas ou engraçadas:
The man wearing a tuxedo looked very handsome.
🎯

Use para Profissionalismo

Orações reduzidas elevam o nível do seu texto instantaneamente, deixando-o mais acadêmico e direto ao ponto:
The results obtained from the study were surprising.
🌍

A Brevidade no Inglês

O inglês valoriza muito a concisão em contextos formais e na mídia, e as reduções ajudam você a soar natural:
The plane arriving at gate 5 is from London.

Smart Tips

Delete them! It almost always makes your sentence stronger and more professional.

The ideas that are presented in this book are great. The ideas presented in this book are great.

Use 'being + V3' to keep the continuous feel.

The road which is being repaired is closed. The road being repaired is closed.

Don't be afraid of -ing in reductions even if you can't use it in normal tenses.

The box that contains the gold... The box containing the gold...

Use reduced clauses to avoid repeating 'who' or 'which'.

He is a man who is tall, who is wearing a hat, and who is carrying a bag. He is a tall man wearing a hat and carrying a bag.

Pronúncia

The MAN SITting there...

Reduced Clause Stress

In a reduced relative clause, the participle usually receives more stress than the noun it follows to emphasize the description.

Falling intonation at the end of the phrase

The books written by him (downward arrow) are on the shelf.

Indicates the end of the descriptive unit.

Memorize

Mnemônico

Drop the 'Whiz' (Who/Which/That + Is/Was) to make your writing whiz by!

Associação visual

Imagine a pair of scissors cutting out the words 'who is' from a sentence, leaving the noun and the action word (-ing/-ed) to snap together like magnets.

Rhyme

If the noun does the act, -ing is the fact. If the noun is the receiver, -ed is the achiever.

Story

A busy editor named 'Red' (Reduction) hates the words 'who', 'which', and 'that'. Every time he sees them with a 'be' verb, he deletes them to save ink, leaving only the 'ing' and 'ed' workers to do the job.

Word Web

ParticipleReductionActivePassivePost-nominalModifierEconomy

Desafio

Look at a news article. Find three sentences with 'who is', 'which was', or 'that are' and rewrite them as reduced relative clauses.

Notas culturais

In Western academic culture, using reduced relative clauses is seen as a sign of high literacy and 'conciseness', which is highly valued in grading.

Headlines almost exclusively use reduced passive clauses to save space.

This construction stems from the Old English use of participles as adjectives, which was later influenced by Latin's heavy use of 'ablative absolutes' and participle phrases.

Iniciadores de conversa

Have you ever seen a movie filmed in your hometown?

What do you think about the laws being passed regarding AI?

Temas para diário

Describe a bustling city street using at least five reduced relative clauses (e.g., 'cars honking', 'people rushing').
Write a formal complaint about a product purchased online that arrived damaged.

Erros comuns

Incorrect

Correto


Incorrect

Correto


Incorrect

Correto


Incorrect

Correto

Test Yourself

Escolha a forma correta do particípio.

The student ___ for the scholarship received an email.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: applying
O estudante está executando a ação de 'se candidatar' (applying), então usamos o particípio presente.
Encontre e corrija o erro na frase. Error Correction

Find and fix the mistake:

The report writing by the committee was very detailed.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: The report written by the committee was very detailed.
O relatório recebe a ação de ser escrito, portanto o particípio passado 'written' é o correto.
Qual frase usa corretamente a oração relativa reduzida? Múltipla escolha

Choose the correct sentence:

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: The questions asked by the professor were challenging.
As perguntas foram 'feitas' (asked) pelo professor, exigindo o particípio passado.
Coloque as palavras em ordem para formar uma frase correta. Sentence Reorder

Arrange the words in the correct order:

All words placed

Click words above to build the sentence

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: The woman living next door is a doctor
'Living' reduz 'who lives', descrevendo quem é a mulher de forma concisa.

Score: /4

Exercicios praticos

8 exercises
Choose the correct reduced form. Múltipla escolha

The bridge ___ last year is already falling apart.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: built
The bridge was built (passive), so we use the past participle.
Fill in the blank with the correct participle of 'wait'.

The people ___ for the train looked bored.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: waiting
The people are doing the action (active), so use -ing.
Find the error in the sentence. Error Correction

Find and fix the mistake:

The car fixing by the mechanic will be ready soon.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: fixing
It should be 'being fixed' or 'fixed' because the car is receiving the action.
Reduce the relative clause: 'The students who were not invited felt sad.' Sentence Transformation

The students ___ ___ felt sad.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: not invited
Drop 'who were' and keep the 'not' before the participle.
Is this sentence correct? True False Rule

The man I met yesterday is here.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: True
This is a reduced relative clause where the object pronoun 'whom' is omitted. It is correct.
Which one is a reduced relative clause? Grammar Sorting

Identify the reduction.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: The man running fast won.
This modifies the noun 'man'.
Match the full clause to its reduced form. Match Pairs

Match them!

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Who is singing -> Singing
All are correct examples of reduction.
Select the most formal reduction. Múltipla escolha

The report ___ by the committee was rejected.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: submitted
Passive reduction is standard for formal reports.

Score: /8

Practice Bank

12 exercises
Escolha a forma correta do particípio. Preencher as lacunas

The proposals ___ at the meeting will be reviewed next week.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: discussed
Corrija o erro na frase. Error Correction

The person interviewed me for the job was very friendly.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: The person interviewing me for the job was very friendly.
Qual frase usa a redução corretamente? Múltipla escolha

Escolha a frase correta:

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: The books written by her are bestsellers.
Digite a frase correta em inglês. Tradução

Traduza para o inglês: 'O documento arquivado na nuvem é seguro.'

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: ["The document archived in the cloud is secure."]
Coloque em ordem para formar uma frase com redução. Sentence Reorder

Ordene as palavras:

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: The coffee machine in the kitchen is broken
Combine a oração original com sua forma reduzida. Match Pairs

Combine as orações:

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: matched
Complete com o particípio correto. Preencher as lacunas

The data ___ from various sources needs careful analysis.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: gathered
Identifique e corrija o erro de lógica na redução. Error Correction

Driving down the street, a large dog suddenly appeared.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: As I was driving down the street, a large dog suddenly appeared.
Selecione a frase com a redução mais precisa. Múltipla escolha

Escolha a melhor frase:

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: The software designed by her team won awards.
Traduza usando uma oração relativa reduzida. Tradução

Traduza: 'Os alunos participando do programa receberão certificados.'

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: ["The students participating in the program will receive certificates."]
Forme uma frase coerente com uma oração reduzida. Sentence Reorder

Desembaralhe as palavras:

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: The meeting scheduled next week is crucial
Identifique se o particípio torna a oração ativa ou passiva. Match Pairs

Classifique o uso do particípio:

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: matched

Score: /12

Perguntas frequentes (8)

No. You can only reduce it if the relative pronoun (who/which/that) is the *subject* of the relative clause. If it's the object, you can omit the pronoun, but you can't turn the verb into a participle.

The participle itself doesn't have a tense. The tense is determined by the main verb of the sentence. `The man sitting there *was* my friend` (Past) vs `The man sitting there *is* my friend` (Present).

Technically, yes, but it's a different type of reduction (omission of the object pronoun). In this lesson, we focus on participle reductions.

Use 'being' only if you want to emphasize that the action is *currently in progress*. Otherwise, just use the past participle.

They are very common in both formal and informal English, but they are especially useful in formal writing to avoid wordiness.

It's a sentence where the reduced clause looks like the main verb at first, confusing the reader. Example: `The horse raced past the barn fell.` (The horse [that was] raced past the barn fell).

Yes! `Anyone knowing the answer should speak up.` This is a great way to use stative verbs which usually don't take -ing.

Only if the information is non-restrictive (extra info). If it's essential to identify the noun, don't use commas.

Scaffolded Practice

1

1

2

2

3

3

4

4

Mastery Progress

Needs Practice

Improving

Strong

Mastered

In Other Languages

Spanish moderate

Participios

Spanish cannot say 'el hombre corriendo' to mean 'the man who is running'; it must be 'el hombre que corre'.

German low

Partizipialattribute

English: 'The man sitting there'. German: 'Der dort sitzende Mann'.

Japanese partial

連体修飾 (Rentai shuushoku)

There is no 'reduction' because there is no 'who/which' to delete.

French high

Proposition participe

French present participles are much more formal than English ones.

Arabic moderate

اسم الفاعل / اسم المفعول

Arabic participles must agree in gender and number with the noun.

Chinese low

的 (de) construction

The modifier always precedes the noun in Chinese, unlike the post-nominal English reduction.

Learning Path

Prerequisites

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