Grammar Rule in 30 Seconds
Trim your sentences by removing 'who is' or 'which was' to create sleek, professional participle phrases.
- Drop the relative pronoun and 'be' verb: 'The man (who is) sitting' becomes 'The man sitting'.
- Use -ing for active actions: 'The girl winning the race' (The girl who is winning).
- Use -ed for passive states: 'The car parked outside' (The car which was parked).
Overview
who is studying や which was written といったフルサイズの関係節を、studying や written という分詞句に凝縮するテクニックです。これは単なる「省略」ではなく、英語という言語が持つ「言語的経済性（Linguistic Economy）」への志向を反映したものです。冗長な要素（関係代名詞とbe動詞）を削ぎ落とすことで、情報をより濃密にパッケージ化し、読者や聞き手に対してプロフェッショナルで知的な印象を与えることができます。The man who is running in the park という長い構造を必要とします。これを短縮することで、日本語の感覚に近い、しかし英語として極めて洗練された表現が可能になります。- 1能動的な関係（現在分詞 -ing）: 修飾される名詞が、その動作を「行っている」場合です。進行形だけでなく、習慣的な動作や状態を示す場合も含まれます。
The students who attend the lecture→The students attending the lecture（講義に出席している学生）
- 1受動的な関係（過去分詞 -ed）: 修飾される名詞が、その動作を「受けている」場合です。これは受動態の関係節から
be動詞が脱落した形と考えることができます。
The report which was submitted yesterday→The report submitted yesterday（昨日提出された報告書）
-ing 形にします。Noun + who/which/that + be + V-ing | who/which/that + be を削除 | Noun + V-ing |Noun + who/which/that + V (active) | who/which/that を削除し、V を V-ing に変更 | Noun + V-ing |- Example (Progressive):
The delegates who are attending the summit...→The delegates attending the summit...（サミットに出席している代表団は…） - Example (Simple Active):
Anyone who wishes to apply...→Anyone wishing to apply...（応募を希望する方はどなたでも…）
be 動詞を削除するだけで、過去分詞が残ります。Noun + who/which/that + be + V-ed (past participle) | who/which/that + be を削除 | Noun + V-ed |- Example:
The strategy that was adopted by the board...→The strategy adopted by the board...（取締役会によって採用された戦略は…） - Example:
Items which are purchased online...→Items purchased online...（オンラインで購入された商品は…）
know, believe, contain など）も同様に短縮可能です。例えば、The envelope which contained the contract は The envelope containing the contract となります。- 1学術論文や技術報告書 (Academic & Technical Writing)
The methodology [outlined in Chapter 2] provides a basis for our analysis.
- 1ビジネスコミュニケーション (Professional Communication)
The documents [required for the merger] のように書くことで、プロフェッショナルで無駄のない印象を与えます。- 1ニュース報道とジャーナリズム (Journalism)
Police [investigating the incident] have found new evidence. のような表現は、即時性と客観性を生みます。- 1複雑な名詞句の構築 (Complex Noun Phrases)
the problem [facing the industry]（業界が直面している問題）や the solution [proposed by the consultants]（コンサルタントによって提案された解決策）といった定型的な表現は、短縮形の方が圧倒的に自然に響きます。- 1目的格の関係代名詞を短縮しようとするミス
- Incorrect:
The book reading by me is interesting.(×) - Correct:
The book I am reading is interesting.(○) - Why? 元の文は
The book which I am readingであり、whichはreadの目的語です。この場合、分詞だけを残す短縮はできません。
- 1能動（-ing）と受動（-ed）の混同
- Incorrect:
The people invited to the party were boring.(意味：招待された人々は退屈だった) - Incorrect:
The people inviting to the party...(意味：パーティーに招待している側の人々) - 日本人は「退屈している人」を
boring peopleと言いがちですが、正しくはbored peopleです。短縮関係節でもThe students [confused by the explanation]（説明に混乱した学生）とすべきところをconfusingとしてしまうミスが目立ちます。
- 1懸垂分詞 (Dangling Participles)
- Incorrect:
Walking down the street, the office building came into view. - Why? これでは「ビルが通りを歩いている」ことになってしまいます。日本語では主語を省略しがちなため、この種の一致に無頓着になりやすいので注意が必要です。
The man who works at the bank is my neighbor. |The man working at the bank is my neighbor. |The car repaired by my father works perfectly. |Mr. Smith, a teacher at the school, is kind. |must, might, should）のニュアンスを含めたい場合は、短縮するとその意味が失われるため、フルサイズの関係節を維持する必要があります。Students who must complete the assignment...(義務)Students completing the assignment...(単なる事実としての動作)
who, which, that）が be 動詞を伴う場合、または能動態の動詞を伴う場合に限られます。目的格の場合や、関係代名詞の後に be 動詞以外の動詞が続き、かつそれが進行形や習慣を表さない場合は、短縮すると不自然になることがあります。who is などを省略せずに言うことも多いです。C2レベルの論文やビジネス文書では、積極的に短縮形を使うことで「こなれた」印象を与えられます。The man who has lived here for ten years を The man having lived here for ten years とすることも理論上は可能ですが、実際には非常に稀です。通常、関係節の短縮では単純な -ing 形が、文脈から判断される完了のニュアンスもカバーします。ただし、文頭に来る分詞構文（Participle Clauses）では Having finished... のような形は一般的です。-ing で訳せますか？The person who is married です。これを短縮すると The person married となり、過去分詞が使われます。動作の継続なのか、状態の帰結なのかを見極めるのがポイントです。Reduction Patterns by Voice
| Original Clause Type | Relative Clause Example | Reduced Form | Participle Used |
|---|---|---|---|
|
Active (Continuous)
|
The man who is working
|
The man working
|
Present (-ing)
|
|
Active (Simple)
|
The man who works
|
The man working
|
Present (-ing)
|
|
Passive (Simple)
|
The car which was stolen
|
The car stolen
|
Past (-ed/V3)
|
|
Passive (Continuous)
|
The car which is being fixed
|
The car being fixed
|
Being + Past Participle
|
|
Perfect (Active)
|
The man who has finished
|
The man having finished
|
Perfect Participle
|
Meanings
A reduced relative clause is a way of shortening a defining relative clause by removing the relative pronoun (who, which, that) and the auxiliary verb 'be', leaving only the participle phrase to modify the noun.
Active Reduction
Using the present participle (-ing) to replace an active relative clause, regardless of the original tense.
“People living in cities often face higher costs.”
“Anyone wanting a refund should speak to the manager.”
Passive Reduction
Using the past participle (-ed/V3) to replace a passive relative clause.
“The bridge built in 1920 is still standing.”
“Items purchased on sale cannot be returned.”
Progressive Passive Reduction
Using 'being' + past participle to indicate an action currently in progress in a passive sense.
“The house being renovated belongs to my uncle.”
“The issues being discussed are quite complex.”
Reference Table
| Form | Structure | Example |
|---|---|---|
|
Active
|
Noun + [Verb-ing]
|
The girl winning the race is my sister.
|
|
Passive
|
Noun + [Verb-ed]
|
The poem written by Keats is famous.
|
|
Progressive Passive
|
Noun + being + [Verb-ed]
|
The bridge being built will be huge.
|
|
Negative Active
|
Noun + not + [Verb-ing]
|
Students not paying attention will fail.
|
|
Negative Passive
|
Noun + not + [Verb-ed]
|
The books not returned must be paid for.
|
|
Stative Active
|
Noun + [Stative-ing]
|
The box containing the files is heavy.
|
フォーマル度スペクトル
The individual spearheading the initiative possesses remarkable talent. (Professional evaluation)
The person leading the project is very talented. (Professional evaluation)
The guy running the show is great. (Professional evaluation)
The one killing it on the project is a legend. (Professional evaluation)
The Anatomy of Reduction
Active
- Present Participle -ing
Passive
- Past Participle -ed / V3
Requirements
- Subject Pronoun Who/Which/That
- Be Verb is/am/are/was/were
Full vs. Reduced
Can I Reduce This?
Is the relative pronoun the subject?
Is there a 'be' verb?
レベル別の例文
The girl sitting there is my friend.
The girl who is sitting there is my friend.
I like the cake made by Mom.
I like the cake which was made by Mom.
Look at the dog running!
Look at the dog that is running!
The book on the table is mine.
The book which is on the table is mine.
The man wearing the red hat is a doctor.
The man who is wearing the red hat is a doctor.
The letters sent yesterday arrived today.
The letters which were sent yesterday arrived today.
I live in a house built in 1990.
I live in a house which was built in 1990.
The students studying hard got good grades.
The students who were studying hard got good grades.
Anyone wanting to join the club should sign here.
Anyone who wants to join the club should sign here.
The products sold in this shop are expensive.
The products which are sold in this shop are expensive.
The woman talking to the teacher is my mother.
The woman who is talking to the teacher is my mother.
The car damaged in the accident was a Ford.
The car which was damaged in the accident was a Ford.
The candidates applying for the job must be bilingual.
The candidates who are applying for the job must be bilingual.
The ideas discussed during the meeting were innovative.
The ideas which were discussed during the meeting were innovative.
The law, passed last year, has caused much controversy.
The law, which was passed last year, has caused much controversy.
None of the people invited to the party showed up.
None of the people who were invited to the party showed up.
The chemicals found in this liquid are highly toxic.
The chemicals which are found in this liquid are highly toxic.
The methodology employed in this study is quite rigorous.
The methodology which was employed in this study is quite rigorous.
The protesters, fearing arrest, dispersed quickly.
The protesters, who were fearing arrest, dispersed quickly.
The house, being built on a cliff, has a great view.
The house, which is being built on a cliff, has a great view.
The paradigm shift occurring in the industry is unprecedented.
The paradigm shift which is occurring in the industry is unprecedented.
The artifacts, unearthed during the 1920s, are now on display.
The artifacts, which were unearthed during the 1920s, are now on display.
The legislation, having been amended several times, was finally passed.
The legislation, which had been amended several times, was finally passed.
The suspect, seen fleeing the scene, was later apprehended.
The suspect, who was seen fleeing the scene, was later apprehended.
間違えやすい
They look the same (Verb-ing at the start or middle).
Both end in -ing.
よくある間違い
The man is sitting there is my dad.
The man sitting there is my dad.
The car made in Japan it is fast.
The car made in Japan is fast.
The people who waiting for the bus are cold.
The people waiting for the bus are cold.
The problem solving by the team was difficult.
The problem solved by the team was difficult.
文型パターン
The ___ ___ing ___ is ___.
Any ___ ___ed by ___ must ___.
Real World Usage
I have several years of experience working with international clients.
See that guy wearing the weird shirt?
The results obtained from the survey suggest a trend.
Local hero honored for bravery.
Batteries included in the box are not rechargeable.
Me trying to finish this project.
The Stative Exception
Watch for Ambiguity
Punctuation Matters
Legal Language
Smart Tips
Delete them! It almost always makes your sentence stronger and more professional.
Use 'being + V3' to keep the continuous feel.
Don't be afraid of -ing in reductions even if you can't use it in normal tenses.
Use reduced clauses to avoid repeating 'who' or 'which'.
発音
Reduced Clause Stress
In a reduced relative clause, the participle usually receives more stress than the noun it follows to emphasize the description.
Falling intonation at the end of the phrase
The books written by him (downward arrow) are on the shelf.
Indicates the end of the descriptive unit.
暗記しよう
記憶術
Drop the 'Whiz' (Who/Which/That + Is/Was) to make your writing whiz by!
視覚的連想
Imagine a pair of scissors cutting out the words 'who is' from a sentence, leaving the noun and the action word (-ing/-ed) to snap together like magnets.
Rhyme
If the noun does the act, -ing is the fact. If the noun is the receiver, -ed is the achiever.
Story
A busy editor named 'Red' (Reduction) hates the words 'who', 'which', and 'that'. Every time he sees them with a 'be' verb, he deletes them to save ink, leaving only the 'ing' and 'ed' workers to do the job.
Word Web
チャレンジ
Look at a news article. Find three sentences with 'who is', 'which was', or 'that are' and rewrite them as reduced relative clauses.
文化メモ
In Western academic culture, using reduced relative clauses is seen as a sign of high literacy and 'conciseness', which is highly valued in grading.
Headlines almost exclusively use reduced passive clauses to save space.
This construction stems from the Old English use of participles as adjectives, which was later influenced by Latin's heavy use of 'ablative absolutes' and participle phrases.
会話のきっかけ
Have you ever seen a movie filmed in your hometown?
What do you think about the laws being passed regarding AI?
日記のテーマ
よくある間違い
Test Yourself
The bridge ___ last year is already falling apart.
The people ___ for the train looked bored.
Find and fix the mistake:
The car fixing by the mechanic will be ready soon.
The students ___ ___ felt sad.
The man I met yesterday is here.
Identify the reduction.
Match each item on the left with its pair on the right:
The report ___ by the committee was rejected.
Score: /8
練習問題
8 exercisesThe bridge ___ last year is already falling apart.
The people ___ for the train looked bored.
Find and fix the mistake:
The car fixing by the mechanic will be ready soon.
The students ___ ___ felt sad.
The man I met yesterday is here.
Identify the reduction.
Match them!
The report ___ by the committee was rejected.
Score: /8
Practice Bank
12 exercisesThe proposals ___ at the meeting will be reviewed next week.
The person interviewed me for the job was very friendly.
Choose the correct sentence:
Translate into English: 'El documento archivado en la nube es seguro.'
Arrange these words into a sentence:
Match the clauses:
The data ___ from various sources needs careful analysis.
Driving down the street, a large dog suddenly appeared.
Choose the best sentence:
Translate into English: 'Los estudiantes participando en el programa recibirán certificados.'
Arrange these words into a sentence:
Classify the participle usage:
Score: /12
よくある質問 (8)
No. You can only reduce it if the relative pronoun (who/which/that) is the *subject* of the relative clause. If it's the object, you can omit the pronoun, but you can't turn the verb into a participle.
The participle itself doesn't have a tense. The tense is determined by the main verb of the sentence. `The man sitting there *was* my friend` (Past) vs `The man sitting there *is* my friend` (Present).
Technically, yes, but it's a different type of reduction (omission of the object pronoun). In this lesson, we focus on participle reductions.
Use 'being' only if you want to emphasize that the action is *currently in progress*. Otherwise, just use the past participle.
They are very common in both formal and informal English, but they are especially useful in formal writing to avoid wordiness.
It's a sentence where the reduced clause looks like the main verb at first, confusing the reader. Example: `The horse raced past the barn fell.` (The horse [that was] raced past the barn fell).
Yes! `Anyone knowing the answer should speak up.` This is a great way to use stative verbs which usually don't take -ing.
Only if the information is non-restrictive (extra info). If it's essential to identify the noun, don't use commas.
Scaffolded Practice
1
2
3
4
Mastery Progress
Needs Practice
Improving
Strong
Mastered
In Other Languages
Participios
Spanish cannot say 'el hombre corriendo' to mean 'the man who is running'; it must be 'el hombre que corre'.
Partizipialattribute
English: 'The man sitting there'. German: 'Der dort sitzende Mann'.
連体修飾 (Rentai shuushoku)
There is no 'reduction' because there is no 'who/which' to delete.
Proposition participe
French present participles are much more formal than English ones.
اسم الفاعل / اسم المفعول
Arabic participles must agree in gender and number with the noun.
的 (de) construction
The modifier always precedes the noun in Chinese, unlike the post-nominal English reduction.
Learning Path
Prerequisites
関連動画
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