Korean Legal Grammar: According To (-ㄴ/은/는 바에 의하여)

• -는 attaches to present tense action verbs (e.g., 하다 -> 하는, 읽다 -> 읽는). It denotes an ongoing action, a general truth, or a universally applicable rule. This is the most common form you'll encounter with 바에 의하여, as many rules are expressed in the present or general tense.
• -ㄴ/은 attaches to past tense action verbs (e.g., 하다 -> 한, 읽다 -> 읽은). It indicates a completed action or an established fact that serves as the basis. It also attaches to descriptive verbs (adjectives) in the present tense (e.g., 적절하다 -> 적절한), signifying an existing state or characteristic.

• Translation: In accordance with what is stipulated in the law, all contracts must be made in writing.
• Breakdown: 법률에 명시된 (what is stipulated in the law) + 바 (the fact) + 에 의하여 (based on).

• Translation: Based on what was agreed upon between the parties, the transaction was canceled.

Yes, they are interchangeable. 에 의해 is simply a shortened form of 에 의하여, similar to how -고 있다 can be shortened to -고 있다 (though not exactly the same grammatical phenomenon). Both convey the same meaning and level of formality. You will encounter both frequently in formal written Korean, with 에 의해 perhaps being slightly more common in modern, concise official texts.

This is a crucial distinction. While all three can be translated as "according to," they differ significantly in nuance and formality:

• 에 따라 (e ttara): This is the most versatile and common "according to." It can be used in a wide range of contexts, from casual to formal. It often implies following a sequence, a standard, or a general guideline. It's softer and less rigid than 바에 의하여.
• 지시에 따라 행동하세요. (Act according to the instructions.)
• 날씨에 따라 옷을 입으세요. (Dress according to the weather.)

• 에 의하면 (e ui-hamyeon): This specifically means "according to (a source)." It implies that the information is based on what someone said, wrote, or reported. It's common in news reports or when citing information from a person or document.
• 뉴스에 의하면 내일 비가 온대요. (According to the news, it will rain tomorrow.)
• 전문가에 의하면 이 방법이 가장 효과적이라고 합니다. (According to experts, this method is the most effective.)

• (-ㄴ/은/는 바에 의하여): This is the most formal and rigid. It signifies strict adherence to an established rule, law, decision, or fact as a direct justification. It implies legal or authoritative binding, leaving no room for interpretation. It's almost exclusively used in formal written contexts.
• 법률에 규정된 바에 의하여 처벌됩니다. (You will be punished in accordance with what is stipulated in the law.)

While grammatically permissible, it is less common and can sometimes feel less natural than with action verbs. 바에 의하여 is predominantly used to refer to actions, decisions, or rules that have been established or are being followed. When you use it with a descriptive verb, it implies that the state of being that adjective is an established, formal basis for something. Often, ~한 사실에 근거하여 (based on the fact that~) or ~의 상황에 따라 (depending on the situation of~) might be more idiomatic if you're trying to convey a descriptive basis.

Absolutely. (-ㄴ/은/는 바에 의하여) is a hallmark of advanced Korean proficiency (TOPIK Level 5 or 6). You should expect to see it in reading comprehension passages, listening sections (especially in formal announcements or news reports), and potentially in writing tasks where a formal tone and precise justification are required. Understanding it is crucial for achieving high scores.

Yes, it is highly appropriate and even encouraged in academic contexts. Using 바에 의하여 in your university essays or research papers demonstrates a sophisticated command of Korean grammar and the ability to express complex ideas with precision and formality. It shows that your arguments or findings are rigorously supported by established principles, data, or methodologies, which is essential for academic credibility.