B2 Verb Moods 10 min read Medium

Reflexive Passive: "sich lassen" and Passive Substitutes

Use sich lassen or reflexive verbs with adverbs to elegantly express passive possibility without using werden.

Grammar Rule in 30 Seconds

Use 'sich lassen' + infinitive to express that something is possible or capable of being done.

  • Use 'sich lassen' to replace the passive voice with a modal meaning: 'Das lässt sich machen' (That can be done).
  • The subject of the sentence is the object that undergoes the action.
  • The main verb always stays in the infinitive form at the very end of the sentence.
Subject + lässt + sich + [Infinitive Verb] + (rest of sentence)

Overview

When learning German, you quickly encounter the passive voice, typically formed with werden + Partizip II. This construction focuses on the action performed and the recipient of that action, often omitting the agent. However, German offers more nuanced ways to express passive-like meanings, especially when the focus shifts from a direct action to the inherent possibility, suitability, or manageability of an action concerning an object.

These alternative constructions are known as Passiversatzformen (passive substitute forms). At the B2 level, mastering these forms significantly enhances your linguistic fluency and ability to express complex ideas concisely. They allow you to sound more natural and less like you are directly translating from English.

Among the most common and versatile passive substitutes are constructions using sich lassen + Infinitiv and what is often termed the Medialkonstruktion (medial construction). These forms are prevalent in various contexts, from technical descriptions and product reviews to everyday conversations and instructions. They articulate a certain quality or potential of the object itself, rather than an action being performed by an external agent.

For instance, instead of stating Das das Problem kann nicht gelöst werden (The problem cannot be solved), a native speaker might prefer Das das Problem lässt sich nicht lösen, implying the problem inherently resists solution. Understanding these distinctions is crucial for both comprehension and active production at an upper-intermediate level.

How This Grammar Works

The core function of sich lassen and medial constructions as passive substitutes is to describe an action's possibility or suitability from the perspective of the object, or to characterize the object based on how an action involving it typically proceeds. They effectively shift the focus away from the agent (who performs the action) and onto the patient (what experiences the action), similar to the passive voice, but with added semantic nuances of potential or inherent quality. This distinguishes them from the simple werden-passive, which describes an event or an action unfolding.
1. sich lassen + Infinitiv:
This construction primarily conveys possibility, capability, or difficulty. It implies that an action can or cannot be performed with or on the subject, or that the subject allows itself to be acted upon. The literal translation of sich lassen as “to let itself” hints at this meaning.
For example, Dieses das Buch lässt sich leicht lesen does not mean the book is actively reading itself, but rather that the act of reading this particular book is easy. The agent who reads the book is either irrelevant or easily inferred. The emphasis is on the book's readability.
This form often replaces können + passive, offering a more elegant and object-centric expression. It highlights an inherent characteristic of the object—its susceptibility or resistance to a specific action. The construction implies a general truth or a characteristic state rather than a specific, active event.
2. Medial Construction (Reflexive Verb + Adverb):
Often confused with sich lassen, the medial construction uses a reflexive verb (e.g., sich lesen, sich öffnen, sich fühlen) usually paired with an adverb (e.g., gut, schlecht, leicht, schwer, angenehm, interessant). This form describes how an object behaves or feels when a certain action is performed upon it. The action isn't necessarily a possibility but rather a description of the experience of the action.
For instance, Der der Wein trinkt sich gut suggests that the wine is pleasant to drink, describing an experience. Here, the action of drinking is still performed by an agent, but the statement focuses on the wine's characteristic that makes the drinking enjoyable. The medial construction is intrinsically tied to the subjective experience or inherent quality of the noun it modifies.
The adverb is almost always essential, as it specifies the nature of this behavior or experience. The underlying linguistic principle is a detransitivization, where a verb that usually takes an object is used reflexively to make the subject appear to be performing the action on itself, thereby describing its intrinsic properties or the ease/difficulty with which it can be acted upon.
It is crucial to recognize that neither sich lassen nor the medial construction constitutes a true grammatical passive with werden. Instead, they are alternative syntactic structures that fulfill a similar communicative function: drawing attention away from the agent and towards the affected entity or the nature of the action itself, but with added semantic layers of possibility, ease, or subjective experience.

Formation Pattern

1
Forming these passive substitute constructions requires careful attention to word order, conjugation, and the consistent use of the reflexive pronoun sich in the sich lassen structure.
2
1. sich lassen + Infinitiv:
3
This pattern is straightforward and focuses on the grammatical subject (the item whose possibility or manageability is being described) and the verb lassen in conjunction with sich.
4
Subject: The noun or pronoun that is the logical object of the action but acts as the grammatical subject. (e.g., Das das Problem, Die die Tür).
5
Conjugated lassen: The verb lassen is conjugated according to the subject's person and number. For passive substitute meaning, the subject is almost exclusively in the third person singular or plural. lassen here functions as a modal-like verb.
6
Reflexive Pronoun sich: Crucially, for passive substitute meanings, the reflexive pronoun is always sich, regardless of whether the subject is singular or plural. This sich is invariant in this context. It acts as a fixed grammatical element rather than directly reflecting the subject's person.
7
Main Verb (Infinitiv): The verb describing the action is placed at the very end of the sentence in its infinitive form.
8
General Pattern:
9
Subject + konjugiertes lassen + sich + Infinitiv des Hauptverbs
10
| Person/Number | Example (Präsens) | Translation |
11
| :-------------- | :----------------------------------- | :---------------------------------- |
12
| 3. Sg. (er/sie/es) | Das das Fenster lässt sich öffnen. | The window can be opened. |
13
| 3. Pl. (sie) | Diese die Geräte lassen sich leicht bedienen. | These devices are easy to operate. |
14
lassen can be conjugated in various tenses to express possibility in different timeframes:
15
| Tense | Example (3. Sg.) | Translation |
16
| :---------- | :----------------------------------------------- | :------------------------------------------------ |
17
| Präsens | Der der Fehler lässt sich finden. | The error can be found. |
18
| Präteritum | Der der Fehler ließ sich finden. | The error could be found. |
19
| Perfekt | Der der Fehler hat sich finden lassen. | The error has been able to be found. (It could be found.) |
20
| Futur I | Der der Fehler wird sich finden lassen. | The error will be able to be found. |
21
Notice that in the Perfekt, lassen uses the auxiliary haben and forms a doppeltes Infinitiv (double infinitive) structure: haben + Infinitiv of lassen + Infinitiv of the main verb. This is common with modal verbs and verbs like lassen, hören, sehen when followed by an infinitive.
22
2. Medial Construction (Reflexive Verb + Adverb):
23
This construction involves a reflexive verb where the reflexive pronoun agrees with the subject, followed by a qualifying adverb.
24
Subject: The noun or pronoun describing the item being characterized (e.g., Das das Buch, Dieser der Stoff).
25
Conjugated Reflexive Verb: The verb is conjugated according to the subject's person and number, and it also takes an appropriate reflexive pronoun (which does agree with the subject, unlike the fixed sich in the sich lassen construction). However, for the passive-like meaning, the subject is typically third person, so sich is still the most common reflexive pronoun here.
26
Adverb: An adverb of manner (e.g., gut, schlecht, leicht, schwer, interessant, angenehm, schnell) is crucial for this construction to convey its intended meaning. It describes how the action feels or proceeds.
27
General Pattern:
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Subject + konjugiertes Reflexives Verb + Adverb
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| Person/Number | Example | Translation |
30
| :-------------- | :----------------------------------------- | :------------------------------------- |
31
| 3. Sg. (er/sie/es) | Der der Roman liest sich flüssig. | The novel reads smoothly. |
32
| 3. Pl. (sie) | Die die Übungen lösen sich schnell. | The exercises solve quickly. |
33
| 1. Sg. (ich) | Ich fühle mich heute gut. (Not passive-like)| I feel good today. |
34
In the medial construction, the reflexive pronoun agrees with the subject, which is generally sich for third-person subjects. Compare this to sich lassen, where sich is fixed.
35
Der der Stoff wäscht sich bei 30 Grad gut. (The fabric washes well at 30 degrees Celsius.)
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Dieses das Spiel spielt sich sehr intuitiv. (This game plays very intuitively.)

When To Use It

These passive substitute constructions offer stylistic elegance and semantic precision, making them indispensable for advanced German learners.
Use sich lassen + Infinitiv when:
  • Expressing General Possibility or Capability: When you want to state that something can or cannot be done, or is generally possible/impossible, without specifying who performs the action. The focus is on the inherent feasibility or potential of the action regarding the object.
  • Dieses das Dokument lässt sich am Computer bearbeiten. (This document can be edited on the computer.) – It highlights the document's editable nature.
  • Die die Frage lässt sich nicht so einfach beantworten. (The question cannot be answered so easily.) – Emphasizing the question's inherent complexity.
  • Referring to Technical or Material Properties: Often found in instructions, manuals, or descriptions of products and materials, where the focus is on how an object functions or can be handled.
  • Die die Tür lässt sich von außen nicht öffnen. (The door cannot be opened from the outside.) – Describing a characteristic of the door's mechanism.
  • Dieser der Klebstoff lässt sich gut verarbeiten. (This glue is easy to work with.) – Describing the glue's property.
  • Avoiding the man kann Construction: While man kann + Infinitive is grammatically correct and common, sich lassen often sounds more sophisticated and natural, particularly in written German or more formal speech, as it personifies the object slightly, making it seem like the object itself allows or disallows the action.
  • Instead of Man kann dieses das Gerät nicht reparieren, consider Dieses das Gerät lässt sich nicht reparieren.
Use the Medial Construction (Reflexive Verb + Adverb) when:
  • Describing an Object's Inherent Quality or Experience: When you want to convey how an action feels or proceeds when performed with or on the subject. The adverb is key here, characterizing the action from the object's perspective.
  • Diese die Seide fühlt sich sehr weich an. (This silk feels very soft.) – Describing the tactile experience of the silk.
  • Der der neue Kaffee trinkt sich sehr gut. (The new coffee drinks very well.) – Describing the pleasant taste/experience of drinking the coffee.
  • Expressing Ease, Difficulty, or Enjoyment: Often used in reviews, casual commentary, or when offering an opinion on how something functions or is perceived.
  • Das das Videospiel spielt sich intuitiv. (The video game plays intuitively.) – Remarking on the ease of use.
  • Der der Film schaut sich leider schlecht. (The film unfortunately watches badly.) – Expressing a negative viewing experience.
Cultural Insight: The prevalence of these impersonal constructions in German, especially sich lassen, reflects a certain objectivity and focus on the inherent properties of things. It allows for precise descriptions that detach the action from a specific doer, which aligns with German technical and scientific communication traditions. This detachment also adds a layer of indirectness that can be perceived as polite or formal, subtly different from directly stating Ich kann das nicht machen.
By making the object the

Conjugation of 'sich lassen'

Person Present Reflexive Infinitive
Ich
lasse
mich
verb
Du
lässt
dich
verb
Er/Sie/Es
lässt
sich
verb
Wir
lassen
uns
verb
Ihr
lasst
euch
verb
Sie/sie
lassen
sich
verb

Meanings

This construction acts as a passive substitute, indicating that an action is possible or permissible. It focuses on the object rather than the agent.

1

Possibility

Expressing that an action can be performed on an object.

“Das Fenster lässt sich nicht öffnen.”

“Die Tür lässt sich leicht schließen.”

Reference Table

Reference table for Reflexive Passive: "sich lassen" and Passive Substitutes
Form Structure Example
Affirmative
Subj + lässt sich + Inf
Das lässt sich machen.
Negative
Subj + lässt sich nicht + Inf
Das lässt sich nicht ändern.
Question
Lässt sich + Subj + Inf?
Lässt sich das reparieren?
Past
Subj + ließ sich + Inf
Das ließ sich machen.
Perfect
Subj + hat sich ... lassen + Inf
Das hat sich machen lassen.
Future
Subj + wird sich ... lassen + Inf
Das wird sich machen lassen.

Formality Spectrum

Formal
Das Problem lässt sich lösen.

Das Problem lässt sich lösen. (Problem solving)

Neutral
Das Problem lässt sich lösen.

Das Problem lässt sich lösen. (Problem solving)

Informal
Das lässt sich machen.

Das lässt sich machen. (Problem solving)

Slang
Geht klar.

Geht klar. (Problem solving)

Passive Substitutes

Passive

Standard

  • werden + Partizip II is done

Modal

  • sich lassen + Inf can be done

Adjective

  • -bar / -lich doable

Examples by Level

1

Das lässt sich machen.

That can be done.

2

Das lässt sich essen.

That is edible.

3

Das lässt sich finden.

That can be found.

4

Das lässt sich sagen.

That can be said.

1

Die Tür lässt sich nicht öffnen.

The door cannot be opened.

2

Das Fenster lässt sich schließen.

The window can be closed.

3

Das Problem lässt sich lösen.

The problem can be solved.

4

Das lässt sich leicht lernen.

That can be learned easily.

1

Der Termin lässt sich leider nicht verschieben.

Unfortunately, the appointment cannot be postponed.

2

Diese Regel lässt sich einfach erklären.

This rule can be explained simply.

3

Das lässt sich durch ein Gespräch klären.

That can be clarified through a conversation.

4

Die Kosten lassen sich minimieren.

The costs can be minimized.

1

Das lässt sich wissenschaftlich nicht belegen.

That cannot be scientifically proven.

2

Diese Software lässt sich intuitiv bedienen.

This software can be operated intuitively.

3

Das lässt sich als Fortschritt werten.

That can be considered progress.

4

Die Situation lässt sich kaum noch kontrollieren.

The situation can hardly be controlled anymore.

1

Die Auswirkungen lassen sich kaum abschätzen.

The effects can hardly be estimated.

2

Das lässt sich auf historische Ursachen zurückführen.

That can be traced back to historical causes.

3

Diese These lässt sich nicht ohne Weiteres halten.

This thesis cannot be maintained without further ado.

4

Das lässt sich als ein Akt der Verzweiflung deuten.

That can be interpreted as an act of desperation.

1

Die Komplexität lässt sich in wenigen Worten kaum erfassen.

The complexity can hardly be captured in a few words.

2

Das lässt sich als ein Paradigmenwechsel begreifen.

That can be understood as a paradigm shift.

3

Die Nuancen lassen sich nur schwer übersetzen.

The nuances are difficult to translate.

4

Das lässt sich nicht mit den geltenden Normen vereinbaren.

That cannot be reconciled with the current standards.

Easily Confused

Reflexive Passive: "sich lassen" and Passive Substitutes vs Passive 'werden'

Learners mix up 'werden' passive with 'sich lassen'.

Reflexive Passive: "sich lassen" and Passive Substitutes vs Modal 'können'

Learners use 'können' instead of 'sich lassen'.

Reflexive Passive: "sich lassen" and Passive Substitutes vs Reflexive verbs

Learners think 'sich lassen' is just a normal reflexive verb.

Common Mistakes

Das lässt machen.

Das lässt sich machen.

Missing reflexive pronoun.

Das lässt sich gemacht.

Das lässt sich machen.

Used participle instead of infinitive.

Das lässt sich kann machen.

Das lässt sich machen.

Redundant modal.

Das lässt sich zu machen.

Das lässt sich machen.

Added unnecessary 'zu'.

Die Tür lässt sich nicht geöffnet.

Die Tür lässt sich nicht öffnen.

Wrong verb form.

Es lässt sich nicht repariert.

Es lässt sich nicht reparieren.

Wrong verb form.

Das lässt sich nicht gemacht werden.

Das lässt sich nicht machen.

Mixing passive and 'sich lassen'.

Der Termin lässt sich nicht verschoben werden.

Der Termin lässt sich nicht verschieben.

Mixing passive and 'sich lassen'.

Das lässt sich nicht zu lösen.

Das lässt sich nicht lösen.

Unnecessary 'zu'.

Das lässt sich nicht gelöst.

Das lässt sich nicht lösen.

Wrong verb form.

Die These lässt sich nicht bewiesen werden.

Die These lässt sich nicht beweisen.

Mixing passive and 'sich lassen'.

Das lässt sich nicht zu belegen.

Das lässt sich nicht belegen.

Unnecessary 'zu'.

Das lässt sich nicht belegt.

Das lässt sich nicht belegen.

Wrong verb form.

Sentence Patterns

Das lässt sich ___.

___ lässt sich nicht ___.

Lässt sich das ___ ___?

___ lässt sich durch ___ ___.

Real World Usage

Tech Support very common

Das Gerät lässt sich nicht einschalten.

Scheduling common

Der Termin lässt sich leider nicht verschieben.

Social Media occasional

Das lässt sich nicht leugnen! #truth

Food Delivery occasional

Die Bestellung lässt sich nicht mehr ändern.

Job Interview common

Das lässt sich durch meine Erfahrung belegen.

Travel common

Das Ticket lässt sich nicht stornieren.

🎯

Avoid the Passive

Use 'sich lassen' to make your German sound less like a textbook and more like a native speaker.
⚠️

Don't Forget 'sich'

Without 'sich', the meaning changes completely. Always include it!
💡

Perfect for Problems

When you are stuck, 'Das lässt sich nicht lösen' is the perfect phrase.
💬

Professional Tone

In German offices, this construction is preferred over 'können' for its objective tone.

Smart Tips

Swap 'können' for 'sich lassen'.

Man kann das Problem lösen. Das Problem lässt sich lösen.

Use 'sich lassen' to focus on the object.

Ich kann das Fenster nicht öffnen. Das Fenster lässt sich nicht öffnen.

Use 'Das lässt sich machen' to agree.

Ich kann das machen. Das lässt sich machen.

Use 'sich lassen' for scheduling.

Wir können den Termin verschieben. Der Termin lässt sich verschieben.

Pronunciation

/ˈlasən/

Stress

Stress the first syllable of 'lassen'.

Falling

Das lässt sich ma-chen. ↘

Statement of fact.

Memorize It

Mnemonic

Think of 'sich lassen' as 'letting itself be done'. If it 'lets itself' be done, it is possible.

Visual Association

Imagine a stubborn jar lid that finally 'lets itself' be opened when you use the 'sich lassen' magic word.

Rhyme

Wenn etwas geht, ganz ohne Stress, sag einfach 'sich lassen' und vergiss den Rest.

Story

I tried to fix my bike. It wouldn't work. I said, 'Das lässt sich nicht reparieren.' Then I tried again, and it finally 'ließ sich reparieren'. Now I am happy.

Word Web

lassensichkönnenmöglichmachbarPassivInfinitive

Challenge

Find 3 objects in your room and say out loud if they can be opened or closed using 'sich lassen'.

Cultural Notes

Germans value efficiency. Using 'sich lassen' sounds more professional than 'können'.

Similar usage, often slightly more formal in writing.

Very common in formal correspondence.

Derived from the Middle High German 'lâzen', meaning to let or allow.

Conversation Starters

Lässt sich das Problem heute lösen?

Lässt sich die Datei öffnen?

Lässt sich der Termin verschieben?

Lässt sich diese Situation noch retten?

Journal Prompts

Describe a technical problem you had today using 'sich lassen'.
Write about a task you finished. Could it have been done differently?
Discuss a rule in your workplace. Does it make sense? Can it be changed?
Reflect on a past mistake. Could it have been avoided?

Common Mistakes

Incorrect

Correct


Incorrect

Correct


Incorrect

Correct


Incorrect

Correct

Test Yourself

Fill in the blank with the correct form.

Das Problem lässt ___ lösen.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: sich
The reflexive pronoun for 'das Problem' is 'sich'.
Choose the correct sentence. Multiple Choice

Which is correct?

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Das lässt sich machen.
Correct structure: lässt + sich + infinitive.
Find the error. Error Correction

Find and fix the mistake:

Das lässt sich nicht repariert.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: repariert -> reparieren
Must use infinitive.
Transform to 'sich lassen'. Sentence Transformation

Man kann das ändern.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Das lässt sich ändern.
Direct transformation.
Order the words. Sentence Building

nicht / lässt / sich / das / ändern

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Das lässt sich nicht ändern.
Correct word order.
Match the meaning. Match Pairs

Match each item on the left with its pair on the right:

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: It can be done.
Modal meaning.
Which verb form is correct? Multiple Choice

Die Tür lässt sich nicht ___.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: öffnen
Must be infinitive.
Complete the sentence.

Der Termin lässt ___ leider nicht verschieben.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: sich
Reflexive for the appointment.

Score: /8

Practice Exercises

8 exercises
Fill in the blank with the correct form.

Das Problem lässt ___ lösen.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: sich
The reflexive pronoun for 'das Problem' is 'sich'.
Choose the correct sentence. Multiple Choice

Which is correct?

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Das lässt sich machen.
Correct structure: lässt + sich + infinitive.
Find the error. Error Correction

Find and fix the mistake:

Das lässt sich nicht repariert.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: repariert -> reparieren
Must use infinitive.
Transform to 'sich lassen'. Sentence Transformation

Man kann das ändern.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Das lässt sich ändern.
Direct transformation.
Order the words. Sentence Building

nicht / lässt / sich / das / ändern

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Das lässt sich nicht ändern.
Correct word order.
Match the meaning. Match Pairs

Das lässt sich machen.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: It can be done.
Modal meaning.
Which verb form is correct? Multiple Choice

Die Tür lässt sich nicht ___.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: öffnen
Must be infinitive.
Complete the sentence.

Der Termin lässt ___ leider nicht verschieben.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: sich
Reflexive for the appointment.

Score: /8

Practice Bank

10 exercises
Fill in the blank Fill in the Blank

Die {die|f} Türen ___ sich nicht öffnen.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: lassen
Which sentence is correct? Multiple Choice

Choose the past tense version:

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Das Geheimnis ließ sich nicht länger bewahren.
Translate the sentence: 'The wine is very pleasant to drink.' Translation

Translate: The wine is very pleasant to drink.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Der Wein trinkt sich sehr angenehm.
Reorder the words Sentence Reorder

lässt / sich / Das / machen

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Das lässt sich machen.
Fix the error: Die Software wird sich einfach bedient. Error Correction

Fix the sentence: Die {die|f} Software wird sich einfach bedient.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Die Software lässt sich einfach bedienen.
Match the pairs Multiple Choice

Match with: 'The car is repairable/can be repaired.'

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Das {das|n} Auto lässt sich reparieren.
Fill in the blank Fill in the Blank

Dieser {der|m} Fehler lässt ___ vermeiden.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: sich
Which sounds more natural? Multiple Choice

Which sentence describes how a song sounds?

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Dieses {das|n} Lied hört sich toll an.
Fill in the blank Fill in the Blank

Der {der|m} Laptop ___ sich nicht mehr starten.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: lässt
Translate: The situation can be clarified. Translation

Translate: The situation can be clarified.

✓ Correct! ✗ Not quite. Correct answer: Die {die|f} Situation lässt sich klären.

Score: /10

FAQ (8)

It is a passive substitute, meaning it conveys a passive-like meaning of possibility.

Yes, 'Das ließ sich machen'.

It is neutral to formal, perfect for professional settings.

It marks the passive nature of the construction.

It is more objective and professional.

The sentence will be grammatically incorrect.

Yes, very frequently.

Most transitive verbs, yes.

Scaffolded Practice

1

1

2

2

3

3

4

4

Mastery Progress

Needs Practice

Improving

Strong

Mastered

In Other Languages

Spanish high

se puede + infinitive

Spanish uses 'poder' (can) while German uses 'lassen' (let).

French moderate

se laisser + infinitive

German is strictly modal (possibility), French is often literal (letting).

English low

can be + participle

English uses the passive voice; German uses a modal construction.

Japanese moderate

~ga dekiru

Japanese uses a morphological potential form; German uses a periphrastic construction.

Arabic moderate

yumkin + an + verb

Arabic is impersonal; German is object-focused.

Chinese low

keyi + verb

Chinese lacks the reflexive/passive nuance entirely.

Learning Path

Prerequisites

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